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1 service level development
разработка уровней обслуживания
Каждый ОКОИ должен предоставлять услуги и необходимые средства для клиентов Игр, что требует, наряду с планированием деятельности функции и объектов, разработку уровней обслуживания. Как правило, каждая функция, предоставляющая услугу или средства, разрабатывает соответствующие уровни обслуживания.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]EN
service level development
Each OCOG is required to deliver services and facilities for Games clients, which requires the development of service levels in addition to function and venue planning. Typically, each function providing a service or facility develops the service levels.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]Тематики
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > service level development
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2 level
n
- acceptance quality level
- average level
- borrowing level
- break-even level of income
- break-even sales level
- budgeted level
- confidence level
- consumption level
- decision-taking level
- deflating price level
- educational level
- engineering level
- expected earning level
- full employment level
- funding level
- income level
- inflation level
- inventory level
- junk level
- lethal level
- margin level
- market level
- mean level
- occupational level
- overall level of income
- pay level
- peak level
- performance level
- preferential level
- price level
- prime rate level
- production level
- profit level
- quality level
- reach level
- reorder level
- replenishment level
- requisite level
- risk level
- salary level
- sales level
- shortage level
- skill level
- standard level
- sustainable level
- stock level
- stock-out level
- subsistence level
- tax level
- technical level
- technological level
- top level
- utility level
- wage level
- work level
- yield level
- level of accumulation
- level of achievements
- level of advance
- level of authority
- level of automation
- level of business
- level of competition
- level of consumption
- level of contracting
- level of currency reserves
- level of current yield
- level of development
- level of economic development
- level of efficiency
- level of employment
- level of an export tax
- level of exposure
- level of income
- level of interest rate
- level of investments
- level of liquidity
- level of living
- level of margin debt
- level of monetary demand
- level of orders
- level of output
- level of prices
- level of production
- level of profitability
- level of profitableness
- level of rates
- level of rent
- level of reserves
- level of sales
- level of savings
- level of supply
- level of service
- level of taxation
- level of wages
- at executive level
- at federal level
- at government level
- below the level
- beyond reasonable level
- be on a level
- increase the price level
- maintain a stable price level
- provide high level of service
- raise the level of funding
- reach a peak level
- reach a record level
- stay at the previous level -
3 level
1) уровень2) выравнивать, сглаживать различия3) равный; одинаковый -
4 near cash
!гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:"consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;" "the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;" "strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and"the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:"the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and"the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)"Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and"Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.More information about DEL and AME is set out below.In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets."Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest."Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:"Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and"The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:"provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;" "enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;" "introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and"not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:"an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;" "an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;" "to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with"further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.This document was updated on 19 December 2005.Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money————————————————————————————————————————"GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money"————————————————————————————————————————GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money————————————————————————————————————————GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.———————————————————————————————————————— -
5 model
1) модель (напр. экономики)2) тип, марка конструкции, модель (напр. автомобиля) -
6 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
7 aircraft
воздушное судно [суда], атмосферный летательный аппарат [аппараты]; самолёт (ы) ; вертолёты); авиация; авиационный; см. тж. airplane, boostaircraft in the barrier — самолёт, задержанный аварийной (аэродромной) тормозной установкой
aircraft off the line — новый [только что построенный] ЛА
B through F aircraft — самолёты модификаций B, C, D, E и F
carrier(-based, -borne) aircraft — палубный ЛА; авианосная авиация
conventional takeoff and landing aircraft — самолёт с обычными взлетом и посадкой (в отличие от укороченного или вертикального)
keep the aircraft (headed) straight — выдерживать направление полёта ЛА (при выполнении маневра); сохранять прямолинейный полет ЛА
keep the aircraft stalled — сохранять режим срыва [сваливания] самолёта, оставлять самолёт в режиме срыва [сваливания]
nearly wing borne aircraft — верт. ЛА в конце режима перехода к горизонтальному полёту
pull the aircraft off the deck — разг. отрывать ЛА от земли (при взлете)
put the aircraft nose-up — переводить [вводить] ЛА на кабрирование [в режим кабрирования]
put the aircraft through its paces — определять предельные возможности ЛА, «выжимать все из ЛА»
reduced takeoff and landing aircraft — самолёт укороченного взлета и посадки (с укороченным разбегом и пробегом)
rocket(-powered, -propelled) aircraft — ракетный ЛА, ЛА с ракетным двигателем
roll the aircraft into a bank — вводить ЛА в крен, накренять ЛА
rotate the aircraft into the climb — увеличивать угол тангажа ЛА для перехода к набору высоты, переводить ЛА в набор высоты
short takeoff and landing aircraft — самолёт короткого взлета и посадки (с коротким разбегом и пробегом)
single vertical tail aircraft — ЛА с одинарным [центральным] вертикальным оперением
strategic(-mission, -purpose) aircraft — ЛА стратегического назначения; стратегический самолёт
take the aircraft throughout its entire envelope — пилотировать ЛА во всем диапазоне полётных режимов
trim the aircraft to fly hands-and-feet off — балансировать самолёт для полёта с брошенным управлением [с брошенными ручкой и педалями]
turbofan(-engined, -powered) aircraft — ЛА с турбовентиляторными двигателями, ЛА с ТРДД
turbojet(-powered, -propelled) aircraft — ЛА с ТРД
undergraduate navigator training aircraft — учебно-тренировочный самолёт для повышенной лётной подготовки штурманов
water(-based, takeoff and landing) aircraft — гидросамолёт
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8 system
1) система || системный3) вчт операционная система; программа-супервизор5) вчт большая программа6) метод; способ; алгоритм•system halted — "система остановлена" ( экранное сообщение об остановке компьютера при наличии серьёзной ошибки)
- CPsystem- H-system- h-system- hydrogen-air/lead battery hybrid system- Ksystem- Lsystem- L*a*b* system- master/slave computer system- p-system- y-system- Δ-system -
9 the
abandon the takeoffпрекращать взлетabeam the left pilot positionна левом траверзеabeam the right pilot positionна правом траверзеabort the flightпрерывать полетabort the takeoffпрерывать взлетabove the glide slopeвыше глиссадыabsorb the shock energyпоглощать энергию удараaccelerate the rotorраскручивать роторaccelerate to the speedразгонять до скоростиadhere to the flight planпридерживаться плана полетаadhere to the trackпридерживаться заданного курсаadjust the cableрегулировать тросadjust the compassустранять девиацию компасаadjust the engineрегулировать двигатель до заданных параметровadjust the headingкорректировать курсadvice to follow the controller's advanceвыполнять указание диспетчераaffect the regularityвлиять на регулярностьaffect the safetyвлиять на безопасностьalign the aircraftустанавливать воздушное судноalign the aircraft with the center lineустанавливать воздушное судно по осиalign the aircraft with the runwayустанавливать воздушное судно по оси ВППalter the headingменять курсamplify the signalусиливать сигналapparent drift of the gyroкажущийся уход гироскопаapply the brakeприменять тормозapproach the beamприближаться к лучуapprove the limitationsутверждать ограниченияapprove the tariffутверждать тарифarea of coverage of the forecastsрайон обеспечения прогнозамиarrest the development of the stallпрепятствовать сваливаниюarrive over the aerodromeприбывать в зону аэродромаassess the damageопределять стоимость поврежденияassess the distanceоценивать расстояниеassess the suitabilityоценивать пригодностьassume the controlбрать управление на себяattain the powerдостигать заданной мощностиattain the speedразвивать заданную скоростьat the end ofв конце циклаat the end of segmentв конце участка(полета) at the end of strokeв конце хода(поршня) at the ground levelна уровне землиat the start of cycleв начале циклаat the start of segmentв начале участка(полета) avoid the obstacleизбегать столкновения с препятствиемbackward movement of the stickвзятие ручки на себяbalance the aircraftбалансировать воздушное судноbalance the control surfaceбалансировать поверхность управленияbalance the propellerбалансировать воздушный винтbear on the accidentиметь отношение к происшествиюbefore the turbineперед турбинойbelow the glide slopeниже глиссадыbelow the landing minimaниже посадочного минимумаbend the cotterpin endsзагибать усики шплинтаbe off the trackуклоняться от заданного курсаbe on the level on the hourзанимать эшелон по нулямblock the brakeставить на тормозboundary of the areaграница зоныbrake the propellerстопорить воздушный винтbreak the journeyпрерывать полетbring the aircraft backвозвращать воздушное судноbring the aircraft outвыводить воздушное судно из кренаby altering the headingпутем изменения курсаcage the gyroscopeарретировать гироскопcalibrate the compassсписывать девиацию компасаcalibrate the indicatorтарировать приборcalibrate the systemтарировать системуcalibrate the tankтарировать бакcancel the driftпарировать сносcancel the flightотменять полетcancel the forecastаннулировать сообщенный прогнозcancel the signalпрекращать подачу сигналаcapture the beamзахватывать лучcarry out a circuit of the aerodromeвыполнять круг полета над аэродромомcarry out the flightвыполнять полетcenter the autopilotцентрировать автопилотcenter the wiperцентрировать щеткуchange the frequencyизменять частотуchange the pitchизменять шагchange the trackизменять линию путиcheck the readingпроверять показанияchop the powerвнезапно изменять режимcircle the aerodromeлетать по кругу над аэродромомclean the aircraftубирать механизацию крыла воздушного суднаclean up the crackзачищать трещинуclearance of the aircraftразрешение воздушному суднуclearance over the thresholdбезопасная высота пролета порогаclear for the left-hand turnдавать разрешение на левый разворотclear the aircraftдавать разрешение воздушному суднуclear the obstacleустранять препятствиеclear the pointпролетать над заданной точкойclear the runwayосвобождать ВППclimb on the courseнабирать высоту при полете по курсуclose the bucketsзакрывать створкиclose the circuitзамыкать цепьclose the flightзаканчивать регистрацию на рейсcome clear of the groundотрываться от землиcommence the flightначинать полетcommence the landing procedureначинать посадкуcompare the readingsсравнивать показанияcompensate the compassустранять девиацию компасаcompensate the errorсписывать девиациюcompile the accident reportсоставлять отчет об авиационном происшествииcomplete the circuitзакольцовыватьcomplete the flightзавершать полетcomplete the flight planсоставлять план полетаcomplete the turnзавершать разворотcompute the visual rangeвычислять дальность видимостиconditions beyond the experienceусловия, по сложности превосходящие квалификацию пилотаconditions on the routeусловия по заданному маршрутуconsidering the obstaclesучет препятствийconstruct the procedureразрабатывать схемуcontainerize the cargoупаковывать груз в контейнереcontinue operating on the fuel reserveпродолжать полет на аэронавигационном запасе топливаcontinue the flightпродолжать полетcontinue the takeoffпродолжать взлетcontribute towards the safetyспособствовать повышению безопасностиcontrol the aircraftуправлять воздушным судномcontrol the pitchуправлять шагомconvert the frequencyпреобразовывать частотуconvey the informationпередавать информациюcorrect the troubleустранять отказcorrespond with the operating minimaсоответствовать эксплуатационному минимумуcounteract the rotor torqueуравновешивать крутящий момент несущего винтаcoverage of the chartкартографируемый районcover the routeпробегать по полному маршрутуcrosscheck the readingsсверять показанияcross the airwayпересекать авиатрассуdata on the performanceкоординаты характеристикиdecelerate in the flightгасить скорость в полетеdecelerate the aircraft toснижать скорость воздушного судна доdecrease the deviationуменьшать величину отклонения от курсаdecrease the pitchуменьшать шагdecrease the speedуменьшать скоростьde-energize the busобесточивать шинуdefine the failureопределять причины отказаdeflate the tireослаблять давление в пневматикеdeflect the control surfaceотклонять поверхность управления(напр. элерон) delay the turnзатягивать разворотdelimit the runwayобозначать границы ВППdelimit the taxiwayобозначать границы рулежной дорожкиdelineate the runwayочерчивать границы ВППdelineate the taxiwayобозначать размеры рулежной дорожкиdeliver the baggageдоставлять багажdeliver the clearanceпередавать разрешениеdenote the obstacleобозначать препятствиеdenoting the obstacleобозначение препятствияdepart from the rulesотступать от установленных правилdeparture from the standardsотклонение от установленных стандартовdepress the pedalнажимать на педальdetach the loadотцеплять грузdetach the wingотстыковывать крылоdeterminate the causeустанавливать причинуdetermine amount of the errorопределять величину девиацииdetermine the delayустанавливать время задержкиdetermine the extent of damageопределять степень поврежденияdetermine the frictionопределять величину сцепленияdetermine the sign of deviationопределять знак девиацииdetract from the safetyснижать безопасностьdevelopment of the stallпроцесс сваливанияdeviate from the flight planотклоняться от плана полетаdeviate from the glide slopeотклоняться от глиссадыdeviate from the headingотклоняться от заданного курсаdeviation from the courseотклонение от заданного курсаdeviation from the level flightотклонение от линии горизонтального полетаdischarge the cargoснимать груз в контейнереdisclose the faresопубликовывать тарифыdiscontinue the takeoffпрекращать взлетdisengage the autopilotвыключать автопилотdisplace the center-of-gravityизменять центровкуdisregard the indicatorпренебрегать показаниями прибораdisseminate the forecastраспространять прогнозdrain the tankсливать из бакаdraw the conclusionподготавливать заключениеdrift off the courseсносить с курсаdrift off the headingуходить с заданного курсаdrop the noseсваливаться на носduck below the glide pathрезко снижаться относительно глиссадыease the aircraft onвыравнивать воздушное судноeffect adversely the strengthнарушать прочность(напр. фюзеляжа) elevation of the stripпревышение летной полосыeliminate the cause ofустранять причинуeliminate the hazardустранять опасную ситуациюeliminate the ice formationустранять обледенениеeliminate the source of dangerустранять источник опасности(для воздушного движения) enable the aircraft toдавать воздушному судну правоendanger the aircraftсоздавать опасность для воздушного суднаendange the safetyугрожать безопасностиendorse the licenseделать отметку в свидетельствеenergize the busподавать электропитание на шинуenforce rules of the airобеспечивать соблюдение правил полетовengage the autopilotвключать автопилотensure the adequate provisionsобеспечивать соответствующие меры предосторожностиenter the aircraftзаносить воздушное судно в реестрenter the aircraft standзаруливать на место стоянки воздушного суднаenter the airwayвыходить на авиатрассуenter the final approach trackвыходить на посадочную прямуюenter the spinвходить в штопорenter the tariff into forceутверждать тарифную ставкуenter the traffic circuitвходить в круг движенияenter the turnвходить в разворотentry into the aerodrome zoneвход в зону аэродромаentry into the flareвходить в этап выравниванияerection of the gyroвосстановление гироскопаestablish the characteristicsустанавливать характеристикиestablish the flight conditionsустанавливать режим полетаestablish the procedureустанавливать порядокexceeding the stalling angleвыход на закритический угол атакиexceed the stopпреодолевать упорexecute the manoeuvreвыполнять маневрexecute the turnвыполнять разворотexpedite the clearanceускорять оформлениеexpress the altitudeчетко указывать высотуextend the agreementпродлевать срок действия соглашенияextend the landing gearвыпускать шассиextend the legsвыпускать шассиextreme aft the center-of-gravityпредельная задняя центровкаextreme forward the center-of-gravityпредельная передняя центровкаeye height over the thresholdуровень положения глаз над порогом ВППfail into the spinсрываться в штопорfail to follow the procedureне выполнять установленную схемуfail to observe the limitationsне соблюдать установленные ограниченияfail to provide the manualsне обеспечивать соответствующими инструкциямиfall into the spinсрываться в штопорfeather the propellerставить воздушный винт во флюгерное положениеfile the flight planрегистрировать план полетаfirst freedom of the airпервая степень свободы воздухаflight inbound the stationполет в направлении на станциюflight outbound the stationполет в направлении от станцииflight over the high seasполет над открытым моремflight under the rulesполет по установленным правиламfly above the weatherлетать над верхней кромкой облаковfly at the altitudeлетать на заданной высотеfly into the sunлетать против солнцаfly into the windлетать против ветраfly on the autopilotлетать на автопилотеfly on the courseлетать по курсуfly on the headingлетать по курсуfly the aircraft1. управлять самолетом2. пилотировать воздушное судно fly the beamлететь по лучуfly the circleлетать по кругуfly the glide-slope beamлетать по глиссадному лучуfly the great circleлетать по ортодромииfly the headingвыполнять полет по курсуfly the rhumb lineлетать по локсодромииfly under the autopilotпилотировать при помощи автопилотаfly under the supervision ofлетать под контролемfocus the lightфокусировать фаруfollow the beamвыдерживать направление по лучуfollow the glide slopeвыдерживать глиссадуfollow up the aircraftсопровождать воздушное судноforfeit the reservationлишать брониfreedom of the airстепень свободы воздухаfuel the tankзаправлять бак топливомfulfil the conditionsвыполнять условияgain the air supremacyзавоевывать господство в воздухеgain the altitudeнабирать заданную высотуgain the glide pathвходить в глиссадуgain the powerдостигать заданной мощностьgain the speedразвивать заданную скоростьgather the speedнаращивать скоростьget into the aerodromeприземляться на аэродромеget on the courseвыходить на заданный курсget the heightнабирать заданную высотуgive the wayуступать трассуgo out of the spinвыходить из штопораgovern the applicationрегулировать применениеgovern the flightуправлять ходом полетаgovern the operationруководить эксплуатациейgrade of the pilot licenceкласс пилотского свидетельстваguard the frequencyпрослушивать частотуhandle the baggageобслуживать багажhandle the flight controlsоперировать органами управления полетомhave the runway in sightчетко видеть ВППhead the aircraft into windнаправлять воздушное судно против ветраhold on the headingвыдерживать на заданном курсеhold over the aidsвыполнять полет в зоне ожиданияhold over the beaconвыполнять полет в режиме ожидания над аэродромомhold the aircraft on the headingвыдерживать воздушное судно на заданном курсеhold the brakeудерживать тормозаhold the heading on the compassвыдерживать курс по компасуhold the positionожидать на местеhold the speed accuratelyточно выдерживать скоростьhover at the height ofзависать на высотеhovering in the ground effectвисение в зоне влияния землиidentify the aerodrome from the airопознавать аэродром с воздухаidentify the aircraftопознавать воздушное судноidentify the center lineобозначать осевую линиюimpair the operationнарушать работуimpair the safetyснижать безопасностьimpose the limitationsналагать ограниченияin computing the fuelпри расчете количества топливаin conformity with the specificationsв соответствии с техническими условиямиincrease a camber of the profileувеличивать кривизну профиляincrease the pitchувеличивать шагincrease the speedувеличивать скоростьindicate the location from the airопределять местоположение с воздухаinherent in the aircraftсвойственный воздушному суднуinitiate the turnвходить в разворотinstall in the aircraftустанавливать на борту воздушного суднаinstall on the aircraftмонтировать на воздушном суднеintercept the beamвыходить на ось лучаintercept the glide slopeзахватывать луч глиссадыInternational Relations Department of the Ministry of Civil AviationУправление внешних сношений Министерства гражданской авиацииinterpretation of the signalрасшифровка сигналаin the case of delayв случае задержкиin the event of a mishapв случае происшествияin the event of malfunctionв случая отказаintroduction of the correctionsввод поправокissue the certificateвыдавать сертификатjeopardize the flightподвергать полет опасностиjudge the safetyоценивать степень опасностиkeep clear of the aircraftдержаться на безопасном расстоянии от воздушного суднаkeep out of the wayне занимать трассуkeep tab on the fleetвести учет паркаkeep the aircraft onвыдерживать воздушное судноkeep the altitudeвыдерживать заданную высотуkeep the ball centeredдержать шарик в центреkeep the paceвыдерживать дистанциюkeep to the minimaустанавливать минимумkick off the driftпарировать сносkill the landing speedгасить посадочную скоростьlanding off the aerodromeпосадка вне аэродромаland into the windвыполнять посадку против ветраland the aircraftприземлять воздушное судноlatch the pitch stopустанавливать на упор шага(лопасти воздушного винта) latch the propeller flight stopставить воздушный винт на полетный упорlateral the center-of-gravityпоперечная центровкаlay the routeпрокладывать маршрутlead in the aircraftзаруливать воздушное судноlead out the aircraftвыруливать воздушное судноleave the airspaceпокидать данное воздушное пространствоleave the altitudeуходить с заданной высотыleave the planeвыходить из самолетаleave the runwayосвобождать ВППlevel the aircraft outвыравнивать воздушное судноlie beyond the rangeнаходиться вне заданного пределаline up the aircraftвыруливать воздушное судно на исполнительный стартload the gearзагружать редукторload the generatorнагружать генераторload the structureнагружать конструкциюlock the landing gearставить шасси на замкиlock the landing gear downставить шасси на замок выпущенного положенияlock the landing gear upставить шасси на замок убранного положенияlock the legsустанавливать шасси на замки выпущенного положенияlongitudinal the center-of-gravityпродольная центровкаlose the altitudeтерять высотуlose the speedтерять заданную скоростьloss the controlтерять управлениеlower the landing gearвыпускать шассиlower the legsвыпускать шассиlower the nose wheelопускать носовое колесоmaintain the aircraft at readiness toдержать воздушное судно готовымmaintain the altitudeвыдерживать заданную высотуmaintain the courseвыдерживать заданный курсmaintain the flight levelвыдерживать заданный эшелон полетаmaintain the flight procedureвыдерживать установленный порядок полетовmaintain the flight watchвыдерживать заданный график полетаmaintain the flying speedвыдерживать требуемую скорость полетаmaintain the headingвыдерживать заданный курсmaintain the parameterвыдерживать заданный параметрmake a complaint against the companyподавать жалобу на компаниюmake the aircraft airborneотрывать воздушное судно от землиmake the course changeизменять курсmake the reservationзабронировать местоmanipulate the flight controlsоперировать органами управления полетомmark the obstacleмаркировать препятствиеmean scale of the chartсредний масштаб картыmeet the airworthiness standardsудовлетворять нормам летной годностиmeet the conditionsвыполнять требованияmeet the specificationsсоблюдать технические условияmisjudge the distanceнеправильно оценивать расстояниеmodify the flight planуточнять план полетаmonitor the flightследить за полетомmonitor the frequencyконтролировать заданную частотуmoor the aircraftшвартовать воздушное судноmount on the frameмонтировать на шпангоутеmove off from the restстрагивать с местаmove the blades to higherутяжелять воздушный винтmove the pedal forwardдавать педаль впередname-code of the routeкодирование названия маршрутаneglect the indicatorне учитывать показания прибораnote the instrument readingsотмечать показания приборовnote the timeзасекать времяobserve the conditionsсоблюдать условияobserve the instrumentsследить за показаниями приборовobserve the readingsнаблюдать за показаниямиobtain the correct pathвыходить на заданную траекториюobtain the flying speedнабирать заданную скорость полетаobtain the forecastполучать прогнозoffer the capacityпредлагать объем загрузкиoff-load the pumpразгружать насосon the base legвыполнил третий разворотon the beamв зоне действия лучаon the cross-wind legвыполнил первый разворотon the down-wind legвыполнил второй разворотon the eastbound legна участке маршрута в восточном направленииon the final legвыполнил четвертый разворотon the left base legподхожу к четвертому с левым разворотомon the speedна скоростиon the upwind legвхожу в кругopen the bucketsоткрывать створкиopen the circuitразмыкать цепьopen the door inward outwardоткрывать люк внутрь наружуoperate from the aerodromeвыполнять полеты с аэродромаoperate under the conditionsэксплуатировать в заданных условияхovercome the obstacleпреодолевать препятствиеovercome the spring forceпреодолевать усилие пружиныoverflying the runwayпролет над ВППoverpower the autopilotпересиливать автопилотoverrun the runwayвыкатываться за пределы ВППovershoot capture of the glide slopeпоздний захват глиссадного лучаover the territoryнад территориейover the topнад верхней границей облаковover the wingнад крыломpark in the baggageсдавать в багажparticipation in the investigationучастие в расследованииpassing over the runwayпролет над ВППpass the signalпропускать сигналpast the turbineза турбинойperform the service bulletinвыполнять доработку по бюллетенюpick up the signalфиксировать сигналpick up the speedразвивать заданную скоростьpilot on the controlsпилот, управляющий воздушным судномpitch the nose downwardопускать носplace the aircraftустанавливать воздушное судноplace the flaps inустанавливать закрылкиplane of symmetry of the aeroplaneплоскость симметрии самолетаplot the aircraftзасекать воздушное судноpotential hazard to the safeпотенциальная угроза безопасностиpower the busвключать шинуpresent the minimum hazardпредставлять минимальную опасностьpreserve the clearanceсохранять запас высотыpressurize the bearingуплотнять опору подачей давленияproduce the signalвыдавать сигналprofitability over the routeэффективность маршрутаprolongation of the ratingпродление срока действия квалификационной отметкиproperly identify the aircraftточно опознавать воздушное судноprotect the circuitзащищать цепьprove the systemиспытывать системуpull out of the spinвыводить из штопораpull the aircraft out ofбрать штурвал на себяpull the control column backбрать штурвал на себяpull the control stick backбрать ручку управления на себяpull up the helicopterрезко увеличивать подъемную силу вертолетаpuncture the tireпрокалывать покрышкуpush the aircraft backбуксировать воздушное судно хвостом впередpush the aircraft downснижать высоту полета воздушного суднаpush the control columnотдавать штурвал от себяpush the control stickотдавать ручку управления от себяput into the spinвводить в штопорput on the courseвыходить на заданный курсput the aircraft into productionзапускать воздушное судно в производствоput the aircraft on the courseвыводить воздушное судно на заданный курсput the aircraft overпереводить воздушное судно в горизонтальный полетraise the landing gearубирать шассиreach the altitudeзанимать заданную высотуreach the flight levelзанимать заданный эшелон полетаreach the glide pathвходить в зону глиссадыreach the speedдостигать заданных оборотовreach the stalling angleвыходить на критический уголread the drift angleотсчитывать угол сносаread the instrumentsсчитывать показания приборовreceive the signalпринимать сигналrecord the readingsрегистрировать показанияrecover from the spinвыходить из штопораrecover from the turnвыходить из разворотаrecovery from the manoeuvreвыход из маневраrecovery from the stallвывод из режима сваливанияrecovery from the turnвыход из разворотаrectify the compassустранять девиацию компасаreduce the hazardуменьшать опасностьreestablish the trackвосстанавливать заданную линию путиregain the glide pathвозвращаться на глиссадуregain the speedвосстанавливать скоростьregain the trackвозвращаться на заданный курсregister the aircraftрегистрировать воздушное судноrelease the aircraftпрекращать контроль воздушного суднаrelease the landing gearснимать шасси с замков убранного положенияrelease the landing gear lockснимать шасси с замкаrelease the loadсбрасывать грузrelease the uplockоткрывать замок убранного положенияrelocate the plane's trimвосстанавливать балансировку самолетаremedy the defectустранять дефектremedy the troubleустранять отказremove the aircraftудалять воздушное судноremove the crackвыбирать трещинуremove the tangleраспутыватьrender the certificateпередавать сертификатrenew the licenseвозобновлять действие свидетельства или лицензииrenew the ratingвозобновлять действие квалификационной отметкиreplan the flightизмерять маршрут полетаreport reaching the altitudeдокладывать о занятии заданной высотыreport reaching the flight levelдокладывать о занятии заданного эшелона полетаreport the headingсообщать курсreset the gyroscopeвосстанавливать гироскопrestart the engine in flightзапускать двигатель в полетеrestore the systemвосстанавливать работу системыrestrict the operationsнакладывать ограничения на полетыresume the flightвозобновлять полетresume the journeyвозобновлять полетretain the leverфиксировать рукояткуretract the landing gearубирать шассиreturn the aircraft to serviceдопускать воздушное судно к дальнейшей эксплуатацииreverse the propellerпереводить винт на отрицательную тягуroll in the aircraftвводить воздушное судно в кренroll into the turnвходить в разворотroll left on the headingвыходить на курс с левым разворотомroll on the aircraftвыполнять этап пробега воздушного суднаroll on the courseвыводить на заданный курсroll out of the turnвыходить из разворотаroll out on the headingвыходить на заданный курсroll out the aircraftвыводить воздушное судно из кренаroll right on the headingвыходить на курс с правым разворотомrotate the aircraftотрывать переднюю опору шасси воздушного суднаrotate the bogieзапрокидывать тележкуrules of the airправила полетовrun fluid through the systemпрогонять системуrun off the runwayвыкатываться за пределы ВППrun out the landing gearвыпускать шассиschedule the performancesзадавать характеристикиseat the brushпритирать щеткуsecond freedom of the airвторая степень свободы воздухаsecure the mishap siteобеспечивать охрану места происшествияselect the courseвыбирать курсselect the flight routeвыбирать маршрут полетаselect the frequencyвыбирать частотуselect the headingзадавать курсselect the modeвыбирать режимselect the track angleзадавать путевой уголseparate the aircraftэшелонировать воздушное судноserve out the service lifeвырабатывать срок службыset at the desired angleустанавливать на требуемый уголset the courseустанавливать курсset the flaps atустанавливать закрылкиset the headingустанавливать курсset the propeller pitchустанавливать шаг воздушного винтаset the throttle leverустанавливать сектор газаset up the speedзадавать определенную скоростьshift the center-of-gravityсмещать центровкуshop out the skinвырубать обшивкуsimulate the instruments responsesимитировать показания приборовslacken the cableослаблять натяжение тросаslave the gyroscopeсогласовывать гироскопsmooth on the headingплавно выводить на заданный курсsmooth out the crackудалять трещинуsmooth out the dentвыправлять вмятинуsmooth the signalсглаживать сигналspace the aircraftопределять зону полета воздушного суднаspin the gyro rotorраскручивать ротор гироскопаstate instituting the investigationгосударство, назначающее расследование(авиационного происшествия) state submitting the reportгосударство, представляющее отчет(об авиационном происшествии) steady airflow about the wingустановившееся обтекание крыла воздушным потокомsteer the aircraftуправлять воздушным судномstop the crack propagationпредотвращать развитие трещиныstop the leakageустранять течьsubmit the flight planпредставлять план полетаsubstitute the aircraftзаменять воздушное судноsupervision approved by the Stateнадзор, установленный государствомsupply the signalподавать сигналswing the compassсписывать девиацию компасаswing the door openоткрывать створкуswitch to the autopilotпереходить на управление с помощью автопилотаswitch to the proper tankвключать подачу топлива из бака с помощью электрического кранаtakeoff into the windвзлетать против ветраtake off power to the shaftотбирать мощность на валtake over the controlбрать управление на себяtake the bearingбрать заданный пеленгtake the energy fromотбирать энергиюtake the readingsсчитывать показанияtake the taxiwayзанимать рулежную дорожкуtake up the backlashустранять люфтtake up the positionвыходить на заданную высотуtap air from the compressorотбирать воздух от компрессораterminate the agreementпрекращать действие соглашенияterminate the controlпрекращать диспетчерское обслуживаниеterminate the flightзавершать полетtest in the wind tunnelпродувать в аэродинамической трубеtest the systemиспытывать системуthe aircraft under commandуправляемое воздушное судноthe route to be flownнамеченный маршрут полетаthe route to be followedустановленный маршрут полетаthe runway is clearВПП свободнаthe runway is not clearВПП занятаthe search is terminatedпоиск прекращенthrough on the same flightтранзитом тем же рейсомthroughout the service lifeна протяжении всего срока службыtighten the turnуменьшать радиус разворотаtime in the airналет часовtime the valvesрегулировать газораспределениеtitl of the gyroзавал гироскопаto define the airspaceопределять границы воздушного пространстваtransfer the controlпередавать диспетчерское управление другому пунктуtransit to the climb speedпереходить к скорости набора высотыtrim the aircraftбалансировать воздушное судноturn into the windразворачивать против ветраturn off the systemвыключать системуturn on the systemвключать системуturn the proper tank onвключать подачу топлива из бока с помощью механического кранаunarm the systemотключать состояние готовности системыuncage the gyroscopeразарретировать гироскопunfeather the propellerвыводить воздушный винт из флюгерного положенияunlatch the landing gearснимать шасси с замковunlatch the pitch stopснимать с упора шага(лопасти воздушного винта) unstall the aircraftвыводить воздушное судно из сваливания на крылоunstick the aircraftотрывать воздушное судно от землиuplift the freightпринимать груз на бортviolate the lawнарушать установленный порядокwander off the courseсбиваться с курсаwarn the aircraftпредупреждать воздушное судноwind the generatorнаматывать обмотку генератораwith decrease in the altitudeсо снижением высотыwithdraw from the agreementвыходить из соглашенияwith increase in the altitudeс набором высотыwithin the frame ofв пределахwithin the rangeв заданном диапазонеwithstand the loadвыдерживать нагрузкуwork on the aircraftвыполнять работу на воздушном суднеwrite down the readingsфиксировать показания -
10 of
acknowledgement of receiptподтверждение приемаactual time of arrivalфактическое время прибытияaerodrome of callаэродром выхода на радиосвязьaerodrome of departureаэродром вылетаaerodrome of intended landingаэродром предполагаемой посадкиaerodrome of originаэродром припискиaircraft center - of - gravityцентровка воздушного суднаairport of departureаэропорт вылетаairport of destinationаэропорт назначенияairport of entryаэропорт прилетаallocation of dutiesраспределение обязанностейallocation of frequenciesраспределение частотallotment of frequenciesвыделение частотalternative means of communicationрезервные средства связиamount of controlsстепень использованияamount of feedbackстепень обратной связиamount of precipitationколичество осадковangle of allowanceугол упрежденияangle of approachугол захода на посадкуangle of approach lightугол набора высотыangle of ascentугол набора высотыangle of attackугол атакиangle of climbугол набора высотыangle of coverageугол действияangle of crabугол сносаangle of descentугол сниженияangle of deviationугол отклоненияangle of dipугол магнитного склоненияangle of diveугол пикированияangle of downwashугол скоса потока внизangle of elevationугол местаangle of exitугол сходаangle of glideугол планированияangle of incidenceугол атакиangle of indraftугол входа воздушной массыangle of lagугол отставанияangle of landingпосадочный уголangle of pitchугол тангажаangle of rollугол кренаangle - of - sideslip transmitterдатчик угла скольженияangle of sightугол прицеливанияangle of slopeугол наклона глиссадыangle of stallугол сваливанияangle of turnугол разворотаangle of upwashугол скоса потока вверхangle of visibilityугол обзораangle of yawугол рысканияantimeridian of Greenwichмеридиан, противоположный Гринвичскомуapparent drift of the gyroкажущийся уход гироскопаapplication of tariffsприменение тарифовapproach rate of descentскорость снижения при заходе на посадкуarc of a pathдуга траекторииarc of equal bearingsдуга равных азимутовarea of coverageзона действияarea of coverage of the forecastsрайон обеспечения прогнозамиarea of occurenceрайон происшествияarea of responsibilityзона ответственностиarrest the development of the stallпрепятствовать сваливаниюassessment of costsустановление размеров расходовassignment of dutiesраспределение обязанностейAssociation of European AirlinesАссоциация европейских авиакомпанийAssociation of South Pacific AirlinesАссоциация авиакомпаний южной части Тихого океанаassumption of control messageприем экипажем диспетчерского указанияat a speed ofна скоростиat the end ofв конце циклаat the end of segmentв конце участка(полета) at the end of strokeв конце хода(поршня) at the start of cycleв начале циклаat the start of segmentв начале участка(полета) aviation-to-aviation type of interferenceпомехи от авиационных объектовavoidance of collisionsпредотвращение столкновенийavoidance of hazardous conditionsпредупреждение опасных условий полетаaxial of bankпродольная осьaxis of precessionось прецессии гироскопаaxis of rollпродольная осьaxis of rotationось вращенияaxis of yawвертикальная осьbackward movement of the stickвзятие ручки на себяbe out of trimбыть разбалансированнымbest rate of climbнаибольшая скороподъемностьbias out of viewвыходить из поля зренияbill of entryтаможенная декларацияbill of ladingгрузовая накладнаяblanketing of controlsзатенение рулейbody of compass cardдиск картушки компасаboundary of the areaграница зоныBureau of Administration and ServicesАдминистративно-хозяйственное управлениеcamber of a profileкривизна профиляcare of passengersобслуживание пассажировcarriage of passengersперевозка пассажировcarry out a circuit of the aerodromeвыполнять круг полета над аэродромомcause of aircraft troubleпричина неисправности воздушного суднаcenter of air pressureцентр аэродинамического давленияcenter of depressionцентр низкого давленияcenter of forceцентр приложения силыcenter of gravityцентр тяжестиcenter of massцентр массcenter of pressureцентр давленияCentral Agency of Air ServiceГлавное агентство воздушных сообщенийcertificate of revaccinationсертификат ревакцинацииcertificate of safety for flightсвидетельство о допуске к полетамcertificate of vaccinationсертификат вакцинацииchoice of fieldвыбор посадочной площадкиclass of liftкласс посадкиclearance of goodsтаможенное разрешение на провозclearance of obstaclesбезопасная высота пролета препятствийclearance of the aircraftразрешение воздушному суднуcoefficient of heat transferкоэффициент теплопередачиcome clear of the groundотрываться от землиcomplex type of aircraftкомбинированный тип воздушного суднаcomposition of a crewсостав экипажаconcept of separationэшелонированиеconditions of carriageусловия перевозокcone of raysпучок лучейcongestion of informationнасыщенность информацииcontinuity of guidanceнепрерывность наведенияcontour of perceived noiseконтур воспринимаемого шумаcontrol of an investigationконтроль за ходом расследованияcorrelation of levelsприведение эшелонов в соответствиеcountry of arrivalстрана прилетаcountry of originстрана вылетаcourse of trainingкурс подготовкиcoverage of the chartкартографируемый районcurve of equal bearingsлиния равных азимутовdanger of collisionsопасность столкновенияdegree of accuracyстепень точностиdegree of freedomстепень свободыdegree of skillуровень квалификацииdegree of stabilityстепень устойчивостиdenial of carriageотказ в перевозкеDepartment of TransportationМинистерство транспортаderivation of operating dataрасчет эксплуатационных параметровdetermination of causeустановление причиныdetermine amount of the errorопределять величину девиацииdetermine the extent of damageопределять степень поврежденияdetermine the sign of deviationопределять знак девиацииdevelopment of the stallпроцесс сваливанияdirection of approachнаправление захода на посадкуdirection of rotationнаправление вращенияdirection of turnнаправление разворотаduration of noise effectпродолжительность воздействия шумаelevation of the stripпревышение летной полосыelevation setting of light unitsустановка углов возвышения глиссадных огнейeliminate the cause ofустранять причинуeliminate the source of dangerустранять источник опасности(для воздушного движения) end of runwayначало ВППenforce rules of the airобеспечивать соблюдение правил полетовen-route change of levelизменение эшелона на маршрутеerection of the gyroвосстановление гироскопаestimated position of aircraftрасчетное положение воздушного суднаestimated time of arrivalрасчетное время прибытияestimated time of departureрасчетное время вылетаestimated time of flightрасчетное время полетаeven use of fuelравномерная выработка топливаextension of ticket validityпродление срока годности билетаextent of damageстепень поврежденияfacilitate rapid clearance ofобеспечивать быстрое освобождениеfactor of safetyуровень безопасностиfiling of statistical dataпредставление статистических данныхfirst freedom of the airпервая степень свободы воздухаfirst type of occurenceпервый тип событияflow of air trafficпоток воздушного движенияfly under the supervision ofлетать под контролемfor reasons of safetyв целях безопасностиfreedom of actionсвобода действийfreedom of the airстепень свободы воздухаfrequency of operationsчастота полетовgathering of informationсбор информацииgeneral conditions of carriageосновные условия перевозкиGeneral Conference of Weights and MeasureГенеральная конференция по мерам и весамGeneral Department of International Air Services of AeroflotЦентральное управление международных воздушных сообщений гражданской авиацииget out of controlтерять управлениеgiven conditions of flightзаданные условия полетаgo out of controlстановиться неуправляемымgo out of the spinвыходить из штопораgrade of serviceкатегория обслуживанияgrade of the pilot licenceкласс пилотского свидетельстваgrading of runwayнивелирование ВППheight at start of retractionвысота начала уборкиhover at the height ofзависать на высотеidentification of signalsопознавание сигналовinconventional type of aircraftнестандартный тип воздушного суднаincrease a camber of the profileувеличивать кривизну профиляindication of a requestобозначение запросаin interests of safetyв интересах безопасностиinitial rate of climbначальная скороподъемностьinitial stage of go-aroundначальный участок ухода на второй кругinlet angle of attackугол атаки заборного устройстваintake angle of attackугол атаки воздухозаборникаintegrated system of airspace controlкомплексная система контроля воздушного пространстваinterception of civil aircraftперехват гражданского воздушного суднаInternational Co-ordinating Council of Aerospace Industries AssociationМеждународный координационный совет ассоциаций авиакосмической промышленностиInternational Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot AssociationsМеждународный совет ассоциаций владельцев воздушных судов и пилотовInternational Federation of Air Line Pilots' AssociationsМеждународная федерация ассоциаций линейных пилотовInternational Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' AssociationsМеждународная федерация ассоциаций авиадиспетчеровInternational Relations Department of the Ministry of Civil AviationУправление внешних сношений Министерства гражданской авиацииinterpretation of the signalрасшифровка сигналаinterpretation of weather chartчтение метеорологической картыintersection of air routesпересечение воздушных трассin the case of delayв случае задержкиin the event of a mishapв случае происшествияin the event of malfunctionв случая отказаintroduction of the correctionsввод поправокkeep clear of rotor bladesостерегаться лопастей несущего винтаkeep clear of the aircraftдержаться на безопасном расстоянии от воздушного суднаkeep out of the wayне занимать трассуlayout of aerodrome markingsмаркировка аэродромаlayout of controlsрасположение органов управленияlessee of an aircraftарендатор воздушного суднаlevel of airworthinessуровень летной годностиlevel of safetyуровень безопасностиlevel of speech interferenceуровень помех речевой связиlimiting range of massпредел ограничения массыline of flightлиния полетаline of positionлиния положенияline of sightлиния визированияlocation of distressрайон бедствияloss of controlпотеря управленияloss of pressurizationразгерметизацияloss of strengthпотеря прочностиmagnetic orientation of runwayориентировка ВПП по магнитному меридиануmargin of errorдопуск на погрешностьmargin of liftзапас подъемной силыmargin of safetyдопустимый уровень безопасностиmargin of stabilityзапас устойчивостиmarking of pavementsмаркировка покрытияmean scale of the chartсредний масштаб картыmeans of communicationсредства связиmeans of identificationсредства опознаванияmeridian of Greenwichгринвичский меридианmethod of steepest descentспособ резкого сниженияmode of flightрежим полетаmoment of inertiaмомент инерцииmoment of momentumмомент количества движенияname-code of the routeкодирование названия маршрутаonset of windрезкий порыв ветраoperation of aircraftэксплуатация воздушного суднаout of ground effectвне зоны влияния землиout of serviceизъятый из эксплуатацииovershoot capture of the glide slopeпоздний захват глиссадного лучаperiod of rating currencyпериод действия квалифицированной отметкиpersonal property of passengersличные вещи пассажировpilot's field of viewполе зрения пилотаplane of rotationплоскость вращенияplane of symmetry of the aeroplaneплоскость симметрии самолетаpoint of arrivalпункт прилетаpoint of callпункт выхода на связьpoint of departureпункт вылетаpoint of destinationпункт назначенияpoint of discontinuityточка разрываpoint of intersectionточка пересеченияpoint of loadingпункт погрузкиpoint of no returnрубеж возвратаpoint of originпункт вылетаpoint of turn-aroundрубеж разворотаpoint of unloadingпункт выгрузкиportion of a flightотрезок полетаportion of a runwayучасток ВППprevention of collisionsпредотвращение столкновенийprimary element of structureосновной элемент конструкцииprohibition of landingзапрещение посадкиprolongation of the ratingпродление срока действия квалификационной отметкиpromotion of safetyобеспечение безопасности полетовproof of complianceдоказательство соответствияpropagation of soundраспространение шумаprotection of evidenceсохранение вещественных доказательствpull out of the spinвыводить из штопораpull the aircraft out ofбрать штурвал на себяradar transfer of controlпередача радиолокационного диспетчерского управленияradius of curvatureрадиус кривизныrange of coverageрадиус действияrange of motionдиапазон отклоненияrange of revolutionsдиапазон оборотовrange of visibilityдальность видимостиrange of visionдальность обзораrate of climbскороподъемностьrate of closureскорость сближенияrate of descentскорость сниженияrate of disagreementскорость рассогласованияrate of dutyскорость таможенной пошлиныrate of exchangeкурс обмена валютыrate of flaps motionскорость отклонения закрылковrate of growthтемп ростаrate of pitchскорость по тангажуrate of rollскорость кренаrate of sideslipскорость бокового скольженияrate of trimскорость балансировкиrate of turnскорость разворотаrate of yawскорость рысканияreception of telephonyприем телефонных сообщенийrecord of amendmentsлист учета поправокrecord of revisionsвнесение поправокregularity of operationsрегулярность полетовrelay of messagesпередача сообщенийrelease of controlпередача управленияremoval of aircraftудаление воздушного суднаremoval of limitationsотмена ограниченийreplacement of partsзамена деталейrepresentative of a carrierпредставитель перевозчикаreservation of a seatбронирование местаretirement of aircraftсписание воздушного суднаright - of - entryпреимущественное право входаroll out of the turnвыходить из разворотаrules of the airправила полетовsafe handling of an aircraftбезопасное управление воздушным судномsecond freedom of the airвторая степень свободы воздухаsecond type of occurenceвторой тип событияselection of engine modeвыбор режима работы двигателяsequence of fuel usageочередность выработки топлива(по группам баков) sequence of operationпоследовательность выполнения операцийshowers of rain and snowливневый дождь со снегомsimultaneous use of runwaysодновременная эксплуатация нескольких ВППsite of occurrenceместо происшествияslope of levelнаклон кривой уровня(шумов) source of dangerисточник опасностиStanding Committee of PerformanceПостоянный комитет по летно-техническим характеристикамstart of leveloffначало выравниванияstart of takeoffначало разбега при взлетеstate of aircraft manufactureгосударство - изготовитель воздушного суднаstate of dischargeстепень разряженности(аккумулятора) state of emergencyаварийное состояниеstate of occurenceгосударство места событияstate of transitгосударство транзитаsteadiness of approachустойчивость при заходе на посадкуsteady rate of climbустановившаяся скорость набора высотыstructure of frontsструктура атмосферных фронтовsubmission of a flight planпредставление плана полетаsystem of monitoring visual aidsсистема контроля за работой визуальных средств(на аэродроме) system of unitsсистема единиц(измерения) table of cruising levelsтаблица крейсерских эшелоновtable of intensity settingsтаблица регулировки интенсивностиtable of limitsтаблица ограниченийtable of toleranceтаблица допусковtake out of serviceснимать с эксплуатацииtarget level of safetyзаданный уровень безопасности полетовtemporary loss of controlвременная потеря управляемостиtermination of controlпрекращение диспетчерского обслуживанияtheory of flightтеория полетаtime of lagвремя запаздыванияtime of originвремя отправленияtitl of the gyroзавал гироскопаtop of climbконечный участок набора высотыtransfer of controlпередача диспетчерского управленияtransmission of telephonyпередача радиотелефонных сообщенийtransmit on frequency ofвести передачу на частотеtriangle of velocitiesтреугольник скоростейunder any kind of engine failureпри любом отказе двигателяuneven use of fuelнеравномерная выработка топливаunit of measurementединица измеренияvelocity of soundскорость звукаwall of overpressureфронт избыточного давленияwarn of dangerпредупреждать об опасностиwithin the frame ofв пределахworking language of ICAOрабочий язык ИКАОzone of intersectionзона пересеченияzone of silenceзона молчания -
11 unit
организационная единица; боевая единица (напр. корабль, ЛА танк); подразделение; часть; соединение; расчетно-снабженческая единица; секция; орган; элемент; комплект; агрегат; установка; см. тж. elementbulk petrol (transport) unit — Бр. часть [подразделение] подвоза наливного (бестарного) горючего
counter C3 unit — часть [подразделение] подавления системы оперативного управления и связи
Fleet Marine (Corps) reconnaissance unit — разведывательное подразделение [часть] флотских сил МП
multisensor (AA) firing unit 3PK — с приборным комплексом из нескольких систем обнаружения и сопровождения
photo (graphic) reconnaissance unit — фоторазведывательная часть [подразделение]
surface-launched unit, fuel air explosive — установка дистанционного разминирования объемным взрывом
surface-launched unit, mine — установка дистанционного минирования
tactical (air) control unit — часть [подразделение] управления ТА
war (time) strength (TOE) unit — часть, укомплектованная по штатам военного времени
— air unit— ASA unit— BM unit— border operation unit— car unit— depot support unit— dry unit— EW unit— GM unit— host country unit— HQ unit— logistics support unit— manpack radio unit— marksmanship training unit— mechanized infantry unit— missile-armed unit— nuclear weapon unit— provisional unit— QM unit— Rangers unit— supported unit— TOE unit— transportation unit— truck transport unit— van unit— wet unit* * *1) часть; 2) единица -
12 modular data center
модульный центр обработки данных (ЦОД)
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[Интент]Параллельные тексты EN-RU
[ http://dcnt.ru/?p=9299#more-9299]
Data Centers are a hot topic these days. No matter where you look, this once obscure aspect of infrastructure is getting a lot of attention. For years, there have been cost pressures on IT operations and this, when the need for modern capacity is greater than ever, has thrust data centers into the spotlight. Server and rack density continues to rise, placing DC professionals and businesses in tighter and tougher situations while they struggle to manage their IT environments. And now hyper-scale cloud infrastructure is taking traditional technologies to limits never explored before and focusing the imagination of the IT industry on new possibilities.
В настоящее время центры обработки данных являются широко обсуждаемой темой. Куда ни посмотришь, этот некогда малоизвестный аспект инфраструктуры привлекает все больше внимания. Годами ИТ-отделы испытывали нехватку средств и это выдвинуло ЦОДы в центр внимания, в то время, когда необходимость в современных ЦОДах стала как никогда высокой. Плотность серверов и стоек продолжают расти, все больше усложняя ситуацию для специалистов в области охлаждения и организаций в их попытках управлять своими ИТ-средами. И теперь гипермасштабируемая облачная инфраструктура подвергает традиционные технологии невиданным ранее нагрузкам, и заставляет ИТ-индустрию искать новые возможности.
At Microsoft, we have focused a lot of thought and research around how to best operate and maintain our global infrastructure and we want to share those learnings. While obviously there are some aspects that we keep to ourselves, we have shared how we operate facilities daily, our technologies and methodologies, and, most importantly, how we monitor and manage our facilities. Whether it’s speaking at industry events, inviting customers to our “Microsoft data center conferences” held in our data centers, or through other media like blogging and white papers, we believe sharing best practices is paramount and will drive the industry forward. So in that vein, we have some interesting news to share.
В компании MicroSoft уделяют большое внимание изучению наилучших методов эксплуатации и технического обслуживания своей глобальной инфраструктуры и делятся результатами своих исследований. И хотя мы, конечно, не раскрываем некоторые аспекты своих исследований, мы делимся повседневным опытом эксплуатации дата-центров, своими технологиями и методологиями и, что важнее всего, методами контроля и управления своими объектами. Будь то доклады на отраслевых событиях, приглашение клиентов на наши конференции, которые посвящены центрам обработки данных MicroSoft, и проводятся в этих самых дата-центрах, или использование других средств, например, блоги и спецификации, мы уверены, что обмен передовым опытом имеет первостепенное значение и будет продвигать отрасль вперед.
Today we are sharing our Generation 4 Modular Data Center plan. This is our vision and will be the foundation of our cloud data center infrastructure in the next five years. We believe it is one of the most revolutionary changes to happen to data centers in the last 30 years. Joining me, in writing this blog are Daniel Costello, my director of Data Center Research and Engineering and Christian Belady, principal power and cooling architect. I feel their voices will add significant value to driving understanding around the many benefits included in this new design paradigm.
Сейчас мы хотим поделиться своим планом модульного дата-центра четвертого поколения. Это наше видение и оно будет основанием для инфраструктуры наших облачных дата-центров в ближайшие пять лет. Мы считаем, что это одно из самых революционных изменений в дата-центрах за последние 30 лет. Вместе со мной в написании этого блога участвовали Дэниел Костелло, директор по исследованиям и инжинирингу дата-центров, и Кристиан Белади, главный архитектор систем энергоснабжения и охлаждения. Мне кажется, что их авторитет придаст больше веса большому количеству преимуществ, включенных в эту новую парадигму проектирования.
Our “Gen 4” modular data centers will take the flexibility of containerized servers—like those in our Chicago data center—and apply it across the entire facility. So what do we mean by modular? Think of it like “building blocks”, where the data center will be composed of modular units of prefabricated mechanical, electrical, security components, etc., in addition to containerized servers.
Was there a key driver for the Generation 4 Data Center?Наши модульные дата-центры “Gen 4” будут гибкими с контейнерами серверов – как серверы в нашем чикагском дата-центре. И гибкость будет применяться ко всему ЦОД. Итак, что мы подразумеваем под модульностью? Мы думаем о ней как о “строительных блоках”, где дата-центр будет состоять из модульных блоков изготовленных в заводских условиях электрических систем и систем охлаждения, а также систем безопасности и т.п., в дополнение к контейнеризованным серверам.
Был ли ключевой стимул для разработки дата-центра четвертого поколения?
If we were to summarize the promise of our Gen 4 design into a single sentence it would be something like this: “A highly modular, scalable, efficient, just-in-time data center capacity program that can be delivered anywhere in the world very quickly and cheaply, while allowing for continued growth as required.” Sounds too good to be true, doesn’t it? Well, keep in mind that these concepts have been in initial development and prototyping for over a year and are based on cumulative knowledge of previous facility generations and the advances we have made since we began our investments in earnest on this new design.Если бы нам нужно было обобщить достоинства нашего проекта Gen 4 в одном предложении, это выглядело бы следующим образом: “Центр обработки данных с высоким уровнем модульности, расширяемости, и энергетической эффективности, а также возможностью постоянного расширения, в случае необходимости, который можно очень быстро и дешево развертывать в любом месте мира”. Звучит слишком хорошо для того чтобы быть правдой, не так ли? Ну, не забывайте, что эти концепции находились в процессе начальной разработки и создания опытного образца в течение более одного года и основываются на опыте, накопленном в ходе развития предыдущих поколений ЦОД, а также успехах, сделанных нами со времени, когда мы начали вкладывать серьезные средства в этот новый проект.
One of the biggest challenges we’ve had at Microsoft is something Mike likes to call the ‘Goldilock’s Problem’. In a nutshell, the problem can be stated as:
The worst thing we can do in delivering facilities for the business is not have enough capacity online, thus limiting the growth of our products and services.Одну из самых больших проблем, с которыми приходилось сталкиваться Майкрософт, Майк любит называть ‘Проблемой Лютика’. Вкратце, эту проблему можно выразить следующим образом:
Самое худшее, что может быть при строительстве ЦОД для бизнеса, это не располагать достаточными производственными мощностями, и тем самым ограничивать рост наших продуктов и сервисов.The second worst thing we can do in delivering facilities for the business is to have too much capacity online.
А вторым самым худшим моментом в этой сфере может слишком большое количество производственных мощностей.
This has led to a focus on smart, intelligent growth for the business — refining our overall demand picture. It can’t be too hot. It can’t be too cold. It has to be ‘Just Right!’ The capital dollars of investment are too large to make without long term planning. As we struggled to master these interesting challenges, we had to ensure that our technological plan also included solutions for the business and operational challenges we faced as well.
So let’s take a high level look at our Generation 4 designЭто заставило нас сосредоточиваться на интеллектуальном росте для бизнеса — refining our overall demand picture. Это не должно быть слишком горячим. И это не должно быть слишком холодным. Это должно быть ‘как раз, таким как надо!’ Нельзя делать такие большие капиталовложения без долгосрочного планирования. Пока мы старались решить эти интересные проблемы, мы должны были гарантировать, что наш технологический план будет также включать решения для коммерческих и эксплуатационных проблем, с которыми нам также приходилось сталкиваться.
Давайте рассмотрим наш проект дата-центра четвертого поколенияAre you ready for some great visuals? Check out this video at Soapbox. Click here for the Microsoft 4th Gen Video.
It’s a concept video that came out of my Data Center Research and Engineering team, under Daniel Costello, that will give you a view into what we think is the future.
From a configuration, construct-ability and time to market perspective, our primary goals and objectives are to modularize the whole data center. Not just the server side (like the Chicago facility), but the mechanical and electrical space as well. This means using the same kind of parts in pre-manufactured modules, the ability to use containers, skids, or rack-based deployments and the ability to tailor the Redundancy and Reliability requirements to the application at a very specific level.
Посмотрите это видео, перейдите по ссылке для просмотра видео о Microsoft 4th Gen:
Это концептуальное видео, созданное командой отдела Data Center Research and Engineering, возглавляемого Дэниелом Костелло, которое даст вам наше представление о будущем.
С точки зрения конфигурации, строительной технологичности и времени вывода на рынок, нашими главными целями и задачами агрегатирование всего дата-центра. Не только серверную часть, как дата-центр в Чикаго, но также системы охлаждения и электрические системы. Это означает применение деталей одного типа в сборных модулях, возможность использования контейнеров, салазок, или стоечных систем, а также возможность подстраивать требования избыточности и надежности для данного приложения на очень специфичном уровне.Our goals from a cost perspective were simple in concept but tough to deliver. First and foremost, we had to reduce the capital cost per critical Mega Watt by the class of use. Some applications can run with N-level redundancy in the infrastructure, others require a little more infrastructure for support. These different classes of infrastructure requirements meant that optimizing for all cost classes was paramount. At Microsoft, we are not a one trick pony and have many Online products and services (240+) that require different levels of operational support. We understand that and ensured that we addressed it in our design which will allow us to reduce capital costs by 20%-40% or greater depending upon class.
Нашими целями в области затрат были концептуально простыми, но трудно реализуемыми. В первую очередь мы должны были снизить капитальные затраты в пересчете на один мегаватт, в зависимости от класса резервирования. Некоторые приложения могут вполне работать на базе инфраструктуры с резервированием на уровне N, то есть без резервирования, а для работы других приложений требуется больше инфраструктуры. Эти разные классы требований инфраструктуры подразумевали, что оптимизация всех классов затрат имеет преобладающее значение. В Майкрософт мы не ограничиваемся одним решением и располагаем большим количеством интерактивных продуктов и сервисов (240+), которым требуются разные уровни эксплуатационной поддержки. Мы понимаем это, и учитываем это в своем проекте, который позволит нам сокращать капитальные затраты на 20%-40% или более в зависимости от класса.For example, non-critical or geo redundant applications have low hardware reliability requirements on a location basis. As a result, Gen 4 can be configured to provide stripped down, low-cost infrastructure with little or no redundancy and/or temperature control. Let’s say an Online service team decides that due to the dramatically lower cost, they will simply use uncontrolled outside air with temperatures ranging 10-35 C and 20-80% RH. The reality is we are already spec-ing this for all of our servers today and working with server vendors to broaden that range even further as Gen 4 becomes a reality. For this class of infrastructure, we eliminate generators, chillers, UPSs, and possibly lower costs relative to traditional infrastructure.
Например, некритичные или гео-избыточные системы имеют низкие требования к аппаратной надежности на основе местоположения. В результате этого, Gen 4 можно конфигурировать для упрощенной, недорогой инфраструктуры с низким уровнем (или вообще без резервирования) резервирования и / или температурного контроля. Скажем, команда интерактивного сервиса решает, что, в связи с намного меньшими затратами, они будут просто использовать некондиционированный наружный воздух с температурой 10-35°C и влажностью 20-80% RH. В реальности мы уже сегодня предъявляем эти требования к своим серверам и работаем с поставщиками серверов над еще большим расширением диапазона температур, так как наш модуль и подход Gen 4 становится реальностью. Для подобного класса инфраструктуры мы удаляем генераторы, чиллеры, ИБП, и, возможно, будем предлагать более низкие затраты, по сравнению с традиционной инфраструктурой.
Applications that demand higher level of redundancy or temperature control will use configurations of Gen 4 to meet those needs, however, they will also cost more (but still less than traditional data centers). We see this cost difference driving engineering behavioral change in that we predict more applications will drive towards Geo redundancy to lower costs.
Системы, которым требуется более высокий уровень резервирования или температурного контроля, будут использовать конфигурации Gen 4, отвечающие этим требованиям, однако, они будут также стоить больше. Но все равно они будут стоить меньше, чем традиционные дата-центры. Мы предвидим, что эти различия в затратах будут вызывать изменения в методах инжиниринга, и по нашим прогнозам, это будет выражаться в переходе все большего числа систем на гео-избыточность и меньшие затраты.
Another cool thing about Gen 4 is that it allows us to deploy capacity when our demand dictates it. Once finalized, we will no longer need to make large upfront investments. Imagine driving capital costs more closely in-line with actual demand, thus greatly reducing time-to-market and adding the capacity Online inherent in the design. Also reduced is the amount of construction labor required to put these “building blocks” together. Since the entire platform requires pre-manufacture of its core components, on-site construction costs are lowered. This allows us to maximize our return on invested capital.
Еще одно достоинство Gen 4 состоит в том, что он позволяет нам разворачивать дополнительные мощности, когда нам это необходимо. Как только мы закончим проект, нам больше не нужно будет делать большие начальные капиталовложения. Представьте себе возможность более точного согласования капитальных затрат с реальными требованиями, и тем самым значительного снижения времени вывода на рынок и интерактивного добавления мощностей, предусматриваемого проектом. Также снижен объем строительных работ, требуемых для сборки этих “строительных блоков”. Поскольку вся платформа требует предварительного изготовления ее базовых компонентов, затраты на сборку также снижены. Это позволит нам увеличить до максимума окупаемость своих капиталовложений.
Мы все подвергаем сомнениюIn our design process, we questioned everything. You may notice there is no roof and some might be uncomfortable with this. We explored the need of one and throughout our research we got some surprising (positive) results that showed one wasn’t needed.
В своем процессе проектирования мы все подвергаем сомнению. Вы, наверное, обратили внимание на отсутствие крыши, и некоторым специалистам это могло не понравиться. Мы изучили необходимость в крыше и в ходе своих исследований получили удивительные результаты, которые показали, что крыша не нужна.
Серийное производство дата центров
In short, we are striving to bring Henry Ford’s Model T factory to the data center. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford#Model_T. Gen 4 will move data centers from a custom design and build model to a commoditized manufacturing approach. We intend to have our components built in factories and then assemble them in one location (the data center site) very quickly. Think about how a computer, car or plane is built today. Components are manufactured by different companies all over the world to a predefined spec and then integrated in one location based on demands and feature requirements. And just like Henry Ford’s assembly line drove the cost of building and the time-to-market down dramatically for the automobile industry, we expect Gen 4 to do the same for data centers. Everything will be pre-manufactured and assembled on the pad.Мы хотим применить модель автомобильной фабрики Генри Форда к дата-центру. Проект Gen 4 будет способствовать переходу от модели специализированного проектирования и строительства к товарно-производственному, серийному подходу. Мы намерены изготавливать свои компоненты на заводах, а затем очень быстро собирать их в одном месте, в месте строительства дата-центра. Подумайте о том, как сегодня изготавливается компьютер, автомобиль или самолет. Компоненты изготавливаются по заранее определенным спецификациям разными компаниями во всем мире, затем собираются в одном месте на основе спроса и требуемых характеристик. И точно так же как сборочный конвейер Генри Форда привел к значительному уменьшению затрат на производство и времени вывода на рынок в автомобильной промышленности, мы надеемся, что Gen 4 сделает то же самое для дата-центров. Все будет предварительно изготавливаться и собираться на месте.
Невероятно энергоэффективный ЦОД
And did we mention that this platform will be, overall, incredibly energy efficient? From a total energy perspective not only will we have remarkable PUE values, but the total cost of energy going into the facility will be greatly reduced as well. How much energy goes into making concrete? Will we need as much of it? How much energy goes into the fuel of the construction vehicles? This will also be greatly reduced! A key driver is our goal to achieve an average PUE at or below 1.125 by 2012 across our data centers. More than that, we are on a mission to reduce the overall amount of copper and water used in these facilities. We believe these will be the next areas of industry attention when and if the energy problem is solved. So we are asking today…“how can we build a data center with less building”?А мы упоминали, что эта платформа будет, в общем, невероятно энергоэффективной? С точки зрения общей энергии, мы получим не только поразительные значения PUE, но общая стоимость энергии, затраченной на объект будет также значительно снижена. Сколько энергии идет на производство бетона? Нам нужно будет столько энергии? Сколько энергии идет на питание инженерных строительных машин? Это тоже будет значительно снижено! Главным стимулом является достижение среднего PUE не больше 1.125 для всех наших дата-центров к 2012 году. Более того, у нас есть задача сокращения общего количества меди и воды в дата-центрах. Мы думаем, что эти задачи станут следующей заботой отрасли после того как будет решена энергетическая проблема. Итак, сегодня мы спрашиваем себя…“как можно построить дата-центр с меньшим объемом строительных работ”?
Строительство дата центров без чиллеровWe have talked openly and publicly about building chiller-less data centers and running our facilities using aggressive outside economization. Our sincerest hope is that Gen 4 will completely eliminate the use of water. Today’s data centers use massive amounts of water and we see water as the next scarce resource and have decided to take a proactive stance on making water conservation part of our plan.
Мы открыто и публично говорили о строительстве дата-центров без чиллеров и активном использовании в наших центрах обработки данных технологий свободного охлаждения или фрикулинга. Мы искренне надеемся, что Gen 4 позволит полностью отказаться от использования воды. Современные дата-центры расходуют большие объемы воды и так как мы считаем воду следующим редким ресурсом, мы решили принять упреждающие меры и включить экономию воды в свой план.
By sharing this with the industry, we believe everyone can benefit from our methodology. While this concept and approach may be intimidating (or downright frightening) to some in the industry, disclosure ultimately is better for all of us.
Делясь этим опытом с отраслью, мы считаем, что каждый сможет извлечь выгоду из нашей методологией. Хотя эта концепция и подход могут показаться пугающими (или откровенно страшными) для некоторых отраслевых специалистов, раскрывая свои планы мы, в конечном счете, делаем лучше для всех нас.
Gen 4 design (even more than just containers), could reduce the ‘religious’ debates in our industry. With the central spine infrastructure in place, containers or pre-manufactured server halls can be either AC or DC, air-side economized or water-side economized, or not economized at all (though the sanity of that might be questioned). Gen 4 will allow us to decommission, repair and upgrade quickly because everything is modular. No longer will we be governed by the initial decisions made when constructing the facility. We will have almost unlimited use and re-use of the facility and site. We will also be able to use power in an ultra-fluid fashion moving load from critical to non-critical as use and capacity requirements dictate.
Проект Gen 4 позволит уменьшить ‘религиозные’ споры в нашей отрасли. Располагая базовой инфраструктурой, контейнеры или сборные серверные могут оборудоваться системами переменного или постоянного тока, воздушными или водяными экономайзерами, или вообще не использовать экономайзеры. Хотя можно подвергать сомнению разумность такого решения. Gen 4 позволит нам быстро выполнять работы по выводу из эксплуатации, ремонту и модернизации, поскольку все будет модульным. Мы больше не будем руководствоваться начальными решениями, принятыми во время строительства дата-центра. Мы сможем использовать этот дата-центр и инфраструктуру в течение почти неограниченного периода времени. Мы также сможем применять сверхгибкие методы использования электрической энергии, переводя оборудование в режимы критической или некритической нагрузки в соответствии с требуемой мощностью.
Gen 4 – это стандартная платформаFinally, we believe this is a big game changer. Gen 4 will provide a standard platform that our industry can innovate around. For example, all modules in our Gen 4 will have common interfaces clearly defined by our specs and any vendor that meets these specifications will be able to plug into our infrastructure. Whether you are a computer vendor, UPS vendor, generator vendor, etc., you will be able to plug and play into our infrastructure. This means we can also source anyone, anywhere on the globe to minimize costs and maximize performance. We want to help motivate the industry to further innovate—with innovations from which everyone can reap the benefits.
Наконец, мы уверены, что это будет фактором, который значительно изменит ситуацию. Gen 4 будет представлять собой стандартную платформу, которую отрасль сможет обновлять. Например, все модули в нашем Gen 4 будут иметь общепринятые интерфейсы, четко определяемые нашими спецификациями, и оборудование любого поставщика, которое отвечает этим спецификациям можно будет включать в нашу инфраструктуру. Независимо от того производите вы компьютеры, ИБП, генераторы и т.п., вы сможете включать свое оборудование нашу инфраструктуру. Это означает, что мы также сможем обеспечивать всех, в любом месте земного шара, тем самым сводя до минимума затраты и максимальной увеличивая производительность. Мы хотим создать в отрасли мотивацию для дальнейших инноваций – инноваций, от которых каждый сможет получать выгоду.
Главные характеристики дата-центров четвертого поколения Gen4To summarize, the key characteristics of our Generation 4 data centers are:
Scalable
Plug-and-play spine infrastructure
Factory pre-assembled: Pre-Assembled Containers (PACs) & Pre-Manufactured Buildings (PMBs)
Rapid deployment
De-mountable
Reduce TTM
Reduced construction
Sustainable measuresНиже приведены главные характеристики дата-центров четвертого поколения Gen 4:
Расширяемость;
Готовая к использованию базовая инфраструктура;
Изготовление в заводских условиях: сборные контейнеры (PAC) и сборные здания (PMB);
Быстрота развертывания;
Возможность демонтажа;
Снижение времени вывода на рынок (TTM);
Сокращение сроков строительства;
Экологичность;Map applications to DC Class
We hope you join us on this incredible journey of change and innovation!
Long hours of research and engineering time are invested into this process. There are still some long days and nights ahead, but the vision is clear. Rest assured however, that we as refine Generation 4, the team will soon be looking to Generation 5 (even if it is a bit farther out). There is always room to get better.
Использование систем электропитания постоянного тока.
Мы надеемся, что вы присоединитесь к нам в этом невероятном путешествии по миру изменений и инноваций!
На этот проект уже потрачены долгие часы исследований и проектирования. И еще предстоит потратить много дней и ночей, но мы имеем четкое представление о конечной цели. Однако будьте уверены, что как только мы доведем до конца проект модульного дата-центра четвертого поколения, мы вскоре начнем думать о проекте дата-центра пятого поколения. Всегда есть возможность для улучшений.So if you happen to come across Goldilocks in the forest, and you are curious as to why she is smiling you will know that she feels very good about getting very close to ‘JUST RIGHT’.
Generations of Evolution – some background on our data center designsТак что, если вы встретите в лесу девочку по имени Лютик, и вам станет любопытно, почему она улыбается, вы будете знать, что она очень довольна тем, что очень близко подошла к ‘ОПИМАЛЬНОМУ РЕШЕНИЮ’.
Поколения эволюции – история развития наших дата-центровWe thought you might be interested in understanding what happened in the first three generations of our data center designs. When Ray Ozzie wrote his Software plus Services memo it posed a very interesting challenge to us. The winds of change were at ‘tornado’ proportions. That “plus Services” tag had some significant (and unstated) challenges inherent to it. The first was that Microsoft was going to evolve even further into an operations company. While we had been running large scale Internet services since 1995, this development lead us to an entirely new level. Additionally, these “services” would span across both Internet and Enterprise businesses. To those of you who have to operate “stuff”, you know that these are two very different worlds in operational models and challenges. It also meant that, to achieve the same level of reliability and performance required our infrastructure was going to have to scale globally and in a significant way.
Мы подумали, что может быть вам будет интересно узнать историю первых трех поколений наших центров обработки данных. Когда Рэй Оззи написал свою памятную записку Software plus Services, он поставил перед нами очень интересную задачу. Ветра перемен двигались с ураганной скоростью. Это окончание “plus Services” скрывало в себе какие-то значительные и неопределенные задачи. Первая заключалась в том, что Майкрософт собиралась в еще большей степени стать операционной компанией. Несмотря на то, что мы управляли большими интернет-сервисами, начиная с 1995 г., эта разработка подняла нас на абсолютно новый уровень. Кроме того, эти “сервисы” охватывали интернет-компании и корпорации. Тем, кому приходится всем этим управлять, известно, что есть два очень разных мира в области операционных моделей и задач. Это также означало, что для достижения такого же уровня надежности и производительности требовалось, чтобы наша инфраструктура располагала значительными возможностями расширения в глобальных масштабах.
It was that intense atmosphere of change that we first started re-evaluating data center technology and processes in general and our ideas began to reach farther than what was accepted by the industry at large. This was the era of Generation 1. As we look at where most of the world’s data centers are today (and where our facilities were), it represented all the known learning and design requirements that had been in place since IBM built the first purpose-built computer room. These facilities focused more around uptime, reliability and redundancy. Big infrastructure was held accountable to solve all potential environmental shortfalls. This is where the majority of infrastructure in the industry still is today.
Именно в этой атмосфере серьезных изменений мы впервые начали переоценку ЦОД-технологий и технологий вообще, и наши идеи начали выходить за пределы общепринятых в отрасли представлений. Это была эпоха ЦОД первого поколения. Когда мы узнали, где сегодня располагается большинство мировых дата-центров и где находятся наши предприятия, это представляло весь опыт и навыки проектирования, накопленные со времени, когда IBM построила первую серверную. В этих ЦОД больше внимания уделялось бесперебойной работе, надежности и резервированию. Большая инфраструктура была призвана решать все потенциальные экологические проблемы. Сегодня большая часть инфраструктуры все еще находится на этом этапе своего развития.
We soon realized that traditional data centers were quickly becoming outdated. They were not keeping up with the demands of what was happening technologically and environmentally. That’s when we kicked off our Generation 2 design. Gen 2 facilities started taking into account sustainability, energy efficiency, and really looking at the total cost of energy and operations.
Очень быстро мы поняли, что стандартные дата-центры очень быстро становятся устаревшими. Они не поспевали за темпами изменений технологических и экологических требований. Именно тогда мы стали разрабатывать ЦОД второго поколения. В этих дата-центрах Gen 2 стали принимать во внимание такие факторы как устойчивое развитие, энергетическая эффективность, а также общие энергетические и эксплуатационные.
No longer did we view data centers just for the upfront capital costs, but we took a hard look at the facility over the course of its life. Our Quincy, Washington and San Antonio, Texas facilities are examples of our Gen 2 data centers where we explored and implemented new ways to lessen the impact on the environment. These facilities are considered two leading industry examples, based on their energy efficiency and ability to run and operate at new levels of scale and performance by leveraging clean hydro power (Quincy) and recycled waste water (San Antonio) to cool the facility during peak cooling months.
Мы больше не рассматривали дата-центры только с точки зрения начальных капитальных затрат, а внимательно следили за работой ЦОД на протяжении его срока службы. Наши объекты в Куинси, Вашингтоне, и Сан-Антонио, Техас, являются образцами наших ЦОД второго поколения, в которых мы изучали и применяли на практике новые способы снижения воздействия на окружающую среду. Эти объекты считаются двумя ведущими отраслевыми примерами, исходя из их энергетической эффективности и способности работать на новых уровнях производительности, основанных на использовании чистой энергии воды (Куинси) и рециклирования отработанной воды (Сан-Антонио) для охлаждения объекта в самых жарких месяцах.
As we were delivering our Gen 2 facilities into steel and concrete, our Generation 3 facilities were rapidly driving the evolution of the program. The key concepts for our Gen 3 design are increased modularity and greater concentration around energy efficiency and scale. The Gen 3 facility will be best represented by the Chicago, Illinois facility currently under construction. This facility will seem very foreign compared to the traditional data center concepts most of the industry is comfortable with. In fact, if you ever sit around in our container hanger in Chicago it will look incredibly different from a traditional raised-floor data center. We anticipate this modularization will drive huge efficiencies in terms of cost and operations for our business. We will also introduce significant changes in the environmental systems used to run our facilities. These concepts and processes (where applicable) will help us gain even greater efficiencies in our existing footprint, allowing us to further maximize infrastructure investments.
Так как наши ЦОД второго поколения строились из стали и бетона, наши центры обработки данных третьего поколения начали их быстро вытеснять. Главными концептуальными особенностями ЦОД третьего поколения Gen 3 являются повышенная модульность и большее внимание к энергетической эффективности и масштабированию. Дата-центры третьего поколения лучше всего представлены объектом, который в настоящее время строится в Чикаго, Иллинойс. Этот ЦОД будет выглядеть очень необычно, по сравнению с общепринятыми в отрасли представлениями о дата-центре. Действительно, если вам когда-либо удастся побывать в нашем контейнерном ангаре в Чикаго, он покажется вам совершенно непохожим на обычный дата-центр с фальшполом. Мы предполагаем, что этот модульный подход будет способствовать значительному повышению эффективности нашего бизнеса в отношении затрат и операций. Мы также внесем существенные изменения в климатические системы, используемые в наших ЦОД. Эти концепции и технологии, если применимо, позволят нам добиться еще большей эффективности наших существующих дата-центров, и тем самым еще больше увеличивать капиталовложения в инфраструктуру.
This is definitely a journey, not a destination industry. In fact, our Generation 4 design has been under heavy engineering for viability and cost for over a year. While the demand of our commercial growth required us to make investments as we grew, we treated each step in the learning as a process for further innovation in data centers. The design for our future Gen 4 facilities enabled us to make visionary advances that addressed the challenges of building, running, and operating facilities all in one concerted effort.
Это определенно путешествие, а не конечный пункт назначения. На самом деле, наш проект ЦОД четвертого поколения подвергался серьезным испытаниям на жизнеспособность и затраты на протяжении целого года. Хотя необходимость в коммерческом росте требовала от нас постоянных капиталовложений, мы рассматривали каждый этап своего развития как шаг к будущим инновациям в области дата-центров. Проект наших будущих ЦОД четвертого поколения Gen 4 позволил нам делать фантастические предположения, которые касались задач строительства, управления и эксплуатации объектов как единого упорядоченного процесса.
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Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > modular data center
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aircraft nвоздушное судноabandon an aircraftпокидать воздушное судноabandoned aircraftвоздушное судно, исключенное из реестраaccident to an aircraftпроисшествие с воздушным судномaccommodate an aircraftразмещать воздушное судноactive aircraftэксплуатируемое воздушное судноafter an aircraftдорабатывать конструкцию воздушного суднаageing aircraftизнос воздушного суднаairborne aircraftвоздушное судно, находящееся в воздухеaircraft acceleration factorкоэффициент перегрузки воздушного суднаaircraft acceleration testsиспытания воздушного судна на перегрузкиaircraft accessory gear boxкоробка приводов самолетных агрегатовaircraft ageсрок службы воздушного суднаaircraft alert positionсостояние готовности воздушного судна к вылетуaircraft alternate-stress testsиспытания воздушного судна на переменные нагрузкиaircraft anticollision deviceприбор предупреждения столкновений воздушных судовaircraft assembly jigсборочный стапель воздушного суднаaircraft axisось симметрии воздушного суднаaircraft balance diagramцентровочный график воздушного суднаaircraft basic specificationsосновные технические данные воздушного суднаaircraft bearingпеленг воздушного суднаaircraft behaviorповедение воздушного суднаaircraft blind transmissionпередача воздушного суднаaircraft braking performanceтормозная характеристика воздушного суднаaircraft breakawayстрагивание воздушного суднаaircraft breakdownвесовая классификация воздушного суднаaircraft call signпозывной код воздушного суднаaircraft capacityвместимость воздушного суднаaircraft capacity rangeпредел коммерческой загрузки воздушного суднаaircraft cargo lashingшвартовка груза на воздушном суднеaircraft categoryвид воздушного суднаaircraft category ratingклассификация воздушных судов по типамaircraft center lineосевая линия воздушного суднаaircraft center - of - gravityцентровка воздушного суднаaircraft certificateсертификат воздушного суднаaircraft certificate holderвладелец сертификата на воздушное судноaircraft classificationклассификация воздушных судовaircraft clockбортовой синхронизаторaircraft commanderкомандир воздушного суднаaircraft commissioning testsэксплуатационные испытания воздушного суднаaircraft communication equipmentбортовое связное оборудованиеaircraft companyфирма по производству воздушных судовaircraft componentэлемент конструкции воздушного суднаaircraft containerконтейнер для перевозки грузов и багажа на воздушном суднеaircraft control lossпотеря управляемости воздушного суднаaircraft control marginзапас управляемости воздушного суднаaircraft control systemсистема управления воздушным судномaircraft control transferпередача управления воздушным судномaircraft cost levelсебестоимость воздушного суднаaircraft courseкурс воздушного суднаaircraft customerзаказчик воздушного суднаaircraft deckпол кабины воздушного суднаaircraft decompressionразгерметизация воздушного суднаaircraft defects listведомость дефектов воздушного суднаaircraft deliveryпоставка воздушных судовaircraft depotавиационная базаaircraft designконструкция воздушного суднаaircraft designerавиаконструкторaircraft design loadрасчетный предел нагрузки воздушного суднаaircraft development plantопытная авиационный заводaircraft dimension toleranceдопуск на размеры воздушного суднаaircraft ditchingвынужденная посадка воздушного судна на водуaircraft documentsбортовая документацияaircraft dry leaseаренда воздушного судна без экипажаaircraft dryleaseаренда воздушного судна без экипажаaircraft earthingзаземление воздушного суднаaircraft electrical failureотказ электросистемы воздушного суднаaircraft electric systemэлектросистема воздушного суднаaircraft electrificationосветительное оборудование воздушного суднаaircraft embodyпроводить доработку воздушного суднаaircraft emergencyаварийная ситуация с воздушным судномaircraft emergency locator beaconбортовой аварийный приводной маякaircraft employmentэксплуатация воздушного суднаaircraft empty weightмасса пустого воздушного суднаaircraft endurance testsресурсные испытания воздушного суднаaircraft environmental testиспытание воздушного судна в термобарокамереaircraft equipmentбортовое оборудованиеaircraft equipment overhaulремонт оборудования воздушного суднаaircraft escape chuteаварийный бортовой трап - лотокaircraft evacuation meansсредства эвакуации воздушного суднаaircraft evolutionэволюция воздушного суднаaircraft factoryавиационный заводaircraft fatigue lifeусталостный ресурс воздушного суднаaircraft fire pointочаг пожара на воздушном суднеaircraft first costсебестоимость производства воздушного суднаaircraft fixместоположение воздушного суднаaircraft fixed equipmentбортовое стационарное оборудованиеaircraft fix latitudeширота местонахождения воздушного суднаaircraft fixtureстапель для сборки воздушного суднаaircraft flashзасветка воздушного суднаaircraft fleetпарк воздушных судовaircraft fleet turnoverоборот парка воздушных судовaircraft flight reportполетный лист воздушного суднаaircraft flyingполеты воздушных судовaircraft freightгруз, перевозимый воздушным судномaircraft fuel consumptionрасход топлива воздушным судномaircraft fuel quantityзапас топлива воздушного суднаaircraft fuel supplyподача топлива в систему воздушного суднаaircraft galleyбортовая кухня воздушного суднаaircraft generationпоколение воздушных судовaircraft geometryконтуры воздушного суднаaircraft handlingуправление воздушным судномaircraft hardwareприборное оборудование воздушного суднаaircraft headingкурс воздушного суднаaircraft heaterаэродромный обогреватель воздушного суднаaircraft heating systemсистема обогрева воздушного суднаaircraft heelкрен воздушного суднаaircraft high tension wiringэлектропроводка высокого напряжения на воздушном суднеaircraft hijack protectionзащита воздушного судна от угонаaircraft hoistсамолетный подъемникaircraft hourсамолето-часaircraft hydraulic jackгидроподъемник для воздушного суднаaircraft icingобледенение воздушного суднаaircraft identificationопознавание воздушного суднаaircraft identification systemсистема опознавания воздушного суднаaircraft impactстолкновение воздушного суднаaircraft impact angleугол удара воздушного суднаaircraft in distressвоздушное судно, терпящее бедствиеaircraft in missingвоздушное судно, пропавшее без вестиaircraft in serviceэксплуатируемое воздушное судноaircraft insuranceстрахование воздушного суднаaircraft integrated data systemбортовая комплексная система регистрации данныхaircraft intentional swerveпреднамеренное отклонение воздушного суднаaircraft interchangeобмен воздушными судамиaircraft is considered to be missingвоздушное судно считается пропавшим без вестиaircraft jacking pointместо установки домкрата для подъема воздушного суднаaircraft ladderбортовая лестницаaircraft ladingзагрузка воздушного суднаaircraft landingпосадка воздушного суднаaircraft landing measurement systemсистема измерения посадочных параметров воздушного суднаaircraft lateral inbalanceнарушение поперечной центровки воздушного суднаaircraft layoutкомпоновка воздушного суднаaircraft leadэлектропроводка воздушного суднаaircraft leafletрекламный проспект воздушного суднаaircraft leaseаренда воздушного суднаaircraft leveling pointнивелировочная точка воздушного суднаaircraft lightsбортовые аэронавигационные огниaircraft limit switchконцевой выключатель в системе воздушного суднаaircraft listкрен воздушного суднаaircraft load distributionраспределение загрузки воздушного суднаaircraft load factorкоэффициент загрузки воздушного суднаaircraft loading chartсхема загрузки воздушного суднаaircraft loading diagramсхема загрузки воздушного суднаaircraft loading instructionинструкция по загрузке воздушного суднаaircraft low tension wiringэлектропроводка низкого напряжения на воздушном суднеaircraft maintenance baseавиационная техническая базаaircraft maintenance depotавиационная техническая базаaircraft maintenance divisionцех технического обслуживания воздушных судовaircraft maintenance engineerинженер по техническому обслуживанию воздушных судовaircraft maintenance engineering exhibitionвыставка технического оборудования для обслуживания воздушных судовaircraft maintenance guideруководство по технической эксплуатации воздушного суднаaircraft maintenance performanceэксплуатационная технологичность воздушного суднаaircraft maintenance practiceтехнология технического обслуживания воздушного суднаaircraft maintenance teamбригада технического обслуживания воздушных судовaircraft main viewобщий вид воздушного суднаaircraft manoeuvrabilityманевренность воздушного суднаaircraft manufacturing facilitiesавиационное производственное предприятиеaircraft manufacturing plantавиационный заводaircraft minimaминимум воздушного суднаaircraft mockupмакет воздушного суднаaircraft modelмодель воздушного суднаaircraft movementдвижение воздушного суднаaircraft mushпросадка воздушного суднаaircraft nationality markгосударственный опознавательный знак воздушного суднаaircraft navigation equipmentбортовое навигационное оборудованиеaircraft noise abatement operating proceduresэксплуатационные методы снижения авиационного шумаaircraft noise annoyanceраздражающее воздействие шума от воздушного судaircraft noise certificateсертификат воздушного судна по шумуaircraft noise pollutionвредное воздействие шума от воздушных судовaircraft noise prediction programпрограмма прогнозирования авиационного шумаaircraft nose sectionносовая часть воздушного суднаaircraft observationнаблюдение с борта воздушного суднаaircraft on flightвоздушное судно в полетеaircraft on registerвоздушное судно, занесенное в реестрaircraft operating agencyлетно-эксплуатационное предприятиеaircraft operating expensesэксплуатационные расходы на воздушное судноaircraft operating instructionинструкция по эксплуатации воздушного суднаaircraft operationэксплуатация воздушного суднаaircraft operational empty weightдопустимая посадочная массаaircraft operational rangeэксплуатационная дальность полета воздушного суднаaircraft operational weightмасса снаряженного воздушного судна без пассажировaircraft overhaulремонт воздушного суднаaircraft overhaul plantремонтный авиационный заводaircraft overhaul shopмастерская капитального ремонта воздушных судовaircraft overswingingраскачивание воздушного суднаaircraft parkingпарковка воздушного суднаaircraft parking equipmentоборудование места стоянки воздушного суднаaircraft parking placeместо стоянки воздушного суднаaircraft passenger insuranceстрахование авиапассажировaircraft perfomance limitationsлетно-технические ограниченияaircraft performance characteristicsлетно-технические характеристикиaircraft performancesлетно-технические характеристики воздушного суднаaircraft phantom viewусловно прозрачный вид воздушного суднаaircraft pivotingразворот воздушного суднаaircraft pneumatic systemпневматическая система воздушного суднаaircraft portable equipmentпереносное бортовое оборудованиеaircraft positionотметка местоположения воздушного суднаaircraft position indicatorуказатель положения воздушного суднаaircraft position lineлиния положения воздушного суднаaircraft position reportсообщение о положении воздушного суднаaircraft power reductionуменьшение мощности двигателей воздушного суднаaircraft power supplyбортовой источник электропитанияaircraft productionпроизводство воздушных судовaircraft production break lineлиния технологического разъема воздушного суднаaircraft production inspectionконтроль качества изготовления воздушных судовaircraft prototypeопытный вариант воздушного суднаaircraft provider stateгосударство - поставщик воздушного суднаaircraft rangeдальность полета воздушного суднаaircraft ratingклассификационная отметка воздушного суднаaircraft readinessготовность воздушного суднаaircraft recorderбортовой регистраторaircraft recorder equipmentбортовая контрольно-записывающая аппаратураaircraft recoveryобнаружение и удаление воздушного суднаaircraft recovery dateдата обнаружения пропавшего воздушного суднаaircraft recovery kitкомплект оборудования для удаления воздушного суднаaircraft recovery planплан восстановления воздушного суднаaircraft reference symbolуказатель положения воздушного судна(на шкале навигационного прибора) aircraft registrationрегистрация воздушного суднаaircraft registration markбортовой регистрационный знак воздушного суднаaircraft registry stateгосударство регистрации воздушного суднаaircraft reliabilityнадежность воздушного суднаaircraft removal from serviceснятие воздушного судна с эксплуатацииaircraft rental costsрасходы на аренду воздушного суднаaircraft repair depotбаза ремонта воздушных судовaircraft repair kitтехническая аптечка воздушного суднаaircraft repairmanспециалист по ремонту воздушных судовaircraft repair shopавиаремонтная мастерскаяaircraft requiring assistanceвоздушное судно, нуждающееся в помощиaircraft reserve factorзапас прочности воздушного суднаaircraft responderсамолетный ответчикaircraft retrofitдоработка воздушного суднаaircraft rollкрен воздушного суднаaircraft safe lifeбезопасный срок службы воздушного суднаaircraft safety beaconпроблесковый маяк для предупреждения столкновенияaircraft safety factorуровень безопасности полетов воздушного суднаaircraft salvageэвакуация воздушного судна с места аварииaircraft sanitary controlсанитарный контроль воздушных судовaircrafts batchсерия воздушных судовaircraft seating densityплотность размещения кресел на воздушном суднеaircraft self routingпрокладка маршрута с помощью бортовых средств навигацииaircraft sensitivityуправляемость воздушного суднаaircraft separation assuranceобеспечение эшелонирования полетов воздушных судовaircraft service periodпродолжительность обслуживания воздушного суднаaircraft service truck'sтранспортные средства для обслуживания воздушного суднаaircraft servicingобслуживание воздушного суднаaircraft servicing equipmentоборудование для обслуживания воздушного суднаaircraft servicing installationстационарная установка для обслуживания воздушного суднаaircraft settingпеленгование воздушного суднаaircraft's fileнабор бортовой документацииaircraft shedангар для воздушного суднаaircraft sideборт воздушного суднаaircrafts impingementстолкновение воздушных судовaircraft simulatorтренажер воздушного суднаaircraft skidding dragсопротивление скольжению воздушного суднаaircraft's loading positionместо загрузки воздушного суднаaircraft sound proofingзвукоизоляция воздушного суднаaircraft spacingэшелонирование полетов воздушных судовaircraft spare partзапасные части для воздушного суднаaircraft's parking positionместо стоянки воздушного суднаaircraft speedскорость воздушного суднаaircraft spiral glideпланирование воздушного судна по спиралиaircraft's present positionфактическое положение воздушного суднаaircraft standместо остановки воздушного суднаaircraft standby facilitiesрезервное оборудование воздушного суднаaircraft stand identificationобозначение места остановки воздушного суднаaircraft stand identification signопознавательный знак места стоянки воздушного суднаaircraft stand lead-in lineлиния заруливания воздушного судна на стоянкуaircraft stand markingмаркировка места стоянки воздушного суднаaircraft stand taxilaneлиния руления воздушного судна в зоне стоянкиaircraft status reportдонесение о состоянии парка воздушных судовaircraft step unitбортовой трапaircraft stopостановка воздушного суднаaircraft stopping performanceтормозная характеристика воздушного суднаaircraft storage batteryбортовая аккумуляторная батареяaircraft storage instructionинструкция по консервации и хранению воздушного суднаaircraft structural deformationдеформация конструкции воздушного суднаaircraft structureконструкция воздушного суднаaircraft substantial damageзначительное повреждение суднаaircraft sudden swerveвнезапное отклонение воздушного суднаaircraft supersedeasсписание воздушного суднаaircraft supplierпредприятие - поставщик воздушных судовaircraft surface movement indicatorиндикатор наземного движения воздушных судовaircraft systemбортовая системаaircraft technicianавиационный техникaircraft test dataданные о результатах испытаний воздушного суднаaircraft test stationиспытательная станция воздушных судовaircraft tie-down pointточка швартовки воздушного суднаaircraft tightnessгерметичность воздушного суднаaircraft tool codingмаркировка бортового инструментаaircraft towing pointбуксировочный узел воздушного суднаaircraft trailспутный след воздушного суднаaircraft trimбалансировка воздушного суднаaircraft typeтип воздушного суднаaircraft uncontrollabilityнеуправляемость воздушного суднаaircraft underloadingнеполная загрузка воздушного суднаaircraft unlawful seizureнезаконный захват воздушного суднаaircraft usability factorкоэффициент использования воздушного суднаaircraft useful loadполезная нагрузка воздушного суднаaircraft user stateгосударство - эксплуатант воздушного суднаaircraft ventilation rateстепень вентиляции кабины воздушного суднаaircraft wakeспутная струя за воздушным судномaircraft warning systemсистема предупредительной сигнализации воздушного суднаaircraft warrantyгарантийный срок воздушного суднаaircraft washing plantмоечная установка для воздушных судовaircraft wearout rateстепень износа воздушного суднаaircraft weight categoryвесовая категория воздушного суднаaircraft weight toleranceдопуск на массу воздушного суднаaircraft wet leaseаренда воздушного судна вместе с экипажемaircraft wreckполомка воздушного суднаairodynamically balanced aircraftаэродинамически сбалансированное воздушное судноalign the aircraftустанавливать воздушное судноalign the aircraft with the center lineустанавливать воздушное судно по осиalign the aircraft with the runwayустанавливать воздушное судно по оси ВППall-cargo aircraftгрузовое воздушное судноall-metal aircraftцельнометаллическое воздушное судноall-purpose aircraftмногоцелевое воздушное судноall-weather aircraftвсепогодное воздушное судноall-wing aircraftвоздушное судно схемы летающее крылоambulance aircraftсанитарное воздушное судноamphibian aircraftсамолет - амфибияapproaching aircraftвоздушное судно, совершающее заход на посадкуarriving aircraftприбывающее воздушное судноassociated aircraft systemвспомогательная бортовая система воздушного суднаauthorized aircraftвоздушное судно, имеющее разрешение на полетbalanced aircraftсбалансированное воздушное судноbalance the aircraftбалансировать воздушное судноbaseline aircraftслужебное воздушное судноbaseline aircraft configurationконфигурация базовой модели воздушного суднаbasic aircraftосновной вариант воздушного суднаboard an aircraftподниматься на борт воздушного суднаbring the aircraft backвозвращать воздушное судноbring the aircraft outвыводить воздушное судно из кренаbusiness aircraftслужебное воздушное судноcanard aircraftвоздушное судно схемы уткаcargo aircraftгрузовое служебное судноcause of aircraft troubleпричина неисправности воздушного суднаcharter an aircraftфрахтовать воздушное судноchartered aircraftзафрахтованное воздушное судноcivil aircraftвоздушное судно гражданской авиацииclean aircraftвоздушное судно с убранной механизацией крылаclean the aircraftубирать механизацию крыла воздушного суднаclearance of the aircraftразрешение воздушному суднуcleared aircraftвоздушное судно, получившее разрешениеclear the aircraftдавать разрешение воздушному суднуcombination aircraftвоздушное судно для смешанных перевозокCommittee on Aircraft NoiseКомитет по авиационному шумуcommuter-size aircraftвоздушное судно местных воздушных линийcomplex type of aircraftкомбинированный тип воздушного суднаconsider an aircraft serviceableдопускать воздушное судно к дальнейшей эксплуатацииcontrol the aircraftуправлять воздушным судномconventional takeoff and landing aircraftвоздушное судно обычной схемы взлета и посадкиconvert an aircraftпереоборудовать воздушное судноconvertible aircraftгрузопассажирское воздушное судноcover an aircraft withзачехлять воздушное судноdamage aircraft structureповреждать конструкцию воздушного суднаdamaged aircraftповрежденное воздушное судноdecelerate the aircraft toснижать скорость воздушного судна доdelta-wing aircraftвоздушное судно с треугольным крыломdeparting aircraftвылетающее воздушное судноderived aircraftмодифицированное воздушное судноdisabled aircraftвоздушное судно, выведенное из строяdouble-decker aircraftдвухпалубное воздушное судноease the aircraft onвыравнивать воздушное судноeastbound aircraftвоздушное судно, летящее курсом на востокeffect on an aircraftвлиять на состояние воздушного суднаenable the aircraft toдавать воздушному судну правоendanger the aircraftсоздавать опасность для воздушного суднаengage in aircraft operationэксплуатировать воздушное судноenter the aircraftзаносить воздушное судно в реестрenter the aircraft standзаруливать на место стоянки воздушного суднаentire aircraftукомплектованное воздушное судноenvironmentally attuned aircraftвоздушное судно, удовлетворяющее требованиям сохранения окружающей средыequip an aircraft withоборудовать воздушное судноestimated position of aircraftрасчетное положение воздушного суднаexecutive aircraftадминистративное воздушное судноexperimental aircraftопытный вариант воздушного суднаfeeder aircraftвоздушное судно вспомогательной авиалинииfill an aircraft withразмещать в воздушном суднеfirst-generation aircraftвоздушное судно первого поколенияfit an aircraft withоборудовать воздушное судноfixed-wing aircraftвоздушное судно с неподвижным крыломfly by an aircraftлетать на воздушном суднеfly the aircraft1. пилотировать воздушное судно2. управлять самолетом folding wing aircraftвоздушное судно со складывающимся крыломfollowing aircraftвоздушное судно, идущее следомfollow up the aircraftсопровождать воздушное судноforest patrol aircraftвоздушное судно для патрулирования лесных массивовfreight aircraftгрузовое воздушное судноfull-scalle aircraftполномасштабная модель воздушного суднаgeneral-purpose aircraftвоздушное судно общего назначенияhandy aircraftлегкоуправляемое воздушное судноhead the aircraft into windнаправлять воздушное судно против ветраheavier-than-air aircraftлетательный аппарат тяжелее воздухаheavy aircraftтранспортное воздушное судноhigh-altitude aircraftвоздушное судно для полетов на большой высотеhigh-capacity aircraftвоздушное судно большой вместимостиhigh-speed aircraftскоростное воздушное судноhigh-wing aircraftвоздушное судно с верхним расположением крылаholding aircraftвоздушное судно в зоне ожиданияhold the aircraft on the headingвыдерживать воздушное судно на заданном курсеhospital aircraftсанитарное воздушное судноhouse an aircraftразмещать воздушное судноhypersonic aircraftгиперзвуковое воздушное судноidentify the aircraftопознавать воздушное судноimproperly loaded aircraftвоздушное судно, загруженное не по установленной схемеinbound aircraftприбывающее воздушное судноin-coming aircraftвоздушное судно на подходеinconventional type of aircraftнестандартный тип воздушного суднаin-flight aircraftвоздушное судно в полетеinherent in the aircraftсвойственный воздушному суднуin-service aircraftэксплуатируемое воздушное судноinstall in the aircraftустанавливать на борту воздушного суднаinstall on the aircraftмонтировать на воздушном суднеinterception of civil aircraftперехват гражданского воздушного суднаinterchanged aircraftвоздушное судно по обменуintercharged aircraft agreementсоглашение об обмене воздушными суднамиinternational aircraft standardмеждународный авиационный стандартInternational Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot AssociationsМеждународный совет ассоциаций владельцев воздушных судов и пилотовintruding aircraftвоздушное судно, создающее опасность столкновенияinward aircraftприбывающее воздушное судноirrepairable aircraftнеремонтопригодное воздушное судноjack an aircraftвывешивать воздушное судно на подъемникахjet aircraftреактивное воздушное судноjoin an aircraftсовершать посадку на борт воздушного суднаkeep clear of the aircraftдержаться на безопасном расстоянии от воздушного суднаkeep the aircraft onвыдерживать воздушное судноknown aircraft damageустановленное повреждение воздушного суднаladen aircraftзагруженное воздушное судноland aircraftсухопутное воздушное судноland the aircraftприземлять воздушное судноlead in the aircraftзаруливать воздушное судноlead out the aircraftвыруливать воздушное судноlease an aircraftарендовать воздушное судноleased aircraftарендованное воздушное судноlessee of an aircraftарендатор воздушного суднаlevel the aircraft outвыравнивать воздушное судноlicensed aircraftлицензированное воздушное судноlift an aircraft onвывешивать воздушное судноlift-fuselage aircraftвоздушное судно с несущим фюзеляжемlight aircraftвоздушное судно небольшой массыlighter-than-air aircraftлетательный аппарат легче воздухаline up the aircraftвыруливать воздушное судно на исполнительный стартlong-bodied aircraftдлиннофюзеляжный самолетlong-distance aircraftвоздушное судно большой дальности полетовlow annoyance aircraftмалошумное воздушное судноlow-wing aircraftвоздушное судно с низким расположением крылаmail-carrying aircraftпочтовое воздушное судноmaintain the aircraft at readiness toдержать воздушное судно готовымmake the aircraft airborneотрывать воздушное судно от землиmaking way aircraftвоздушное судно в полетеmanned aircraftпилотируемое воздушное судноmid-wing aircraftвоздушное судно со средним расположением крылаmissing aircraftпропавшее воздушное судноmodified aircraftмодифицированное воздушное судноmoor the aircraftшвартовать воздушное судноmulticrew aircraftвоздушное судно с экипажем из нескольких человекmultiengined aircraftвоздушное судно с двумя и более двигателямиmultipurpose aircraftмногоцелевое воздушное судноnarrow-body aircraftвоздушное судно с узким фюзеляжемnonnoise certificate aircraftвоздушное судно, не сертифицированное по шумуnose-in aircraft standместо стоянки воздушного судна носом к аэровокзалуnose-out aircraft standместо стоянки воздушного судна хвостом к аэровокзалуon aircraft center lineпо оси воздушного суднаoncoming aircraftвоздушное судно, находящееся на встречном курсеone-engined aircraftвоздушное судно с одним двигателемoperate an aircraftэксплуатировать воздушное судноoperation of aircraftэксплуатация воздушного суднаoriginating aircraftвылетающее воздушное судноoutbound aircraftвылетающее воздушное судноoutdated aircraftустаревшая модель воздушного суднаout-of-balance aircraftнесбалансированное воздушное судноoutward aircraftвылетающее воздушное судноoverweight aircraftперегруженное воздушное судноowner-operated aircraftвоздушное судно, находящееся в эксплуатации владельцаpark an aircraftпарковать воздушное судноpassenger aircraftпассажирское воздушное судноpatrol aircraftпатрульное воздушное судноpiston-engined aircraftвоздушное судно с поршневым двигателемplace the aircraftустанавливать воздушное судноplot the aircraftзасекать воздушное судноpractice aircraftтренировочное воздушное судноpreceeding aircraftвоздушное судно, идущее впередиpreproduction aircraftопытный вариант воздушного суднаpressurized aircraftгерметизированное воздушное судноproduction aircraftсерийный вариант воздушного суднаprofitable aircraftкоммерческое воздушное судноprop-driven aircraftвинтовое воздушное судноproperly identify the aircraftточно опознавать воздушное судноprototype aircraftопытный вариант воздушного суднаpull the aircraft out ofбрать штурвал на себяpush the aircraft backбуксировать воздушное судно хвостом впередpush the aircraft downснижать высоту полета воздушного суднаput the aircraft into productionзапускать воздушное судно в производствоput the aircraft on the courseвыводить воздушное судно на заданный курсput the aircraft overпереводить воздушное судно в горизонтальный полетquiet aircraftбесшумное воздушное судноreceiver aircraftвоздушное судно, дозаправляемое в полетеreduced takeoff and landing aircraftвоздушное судно укороченного взлета и посадкиreequip an aircraftзаменять оборудование воздушного суднаregister the aircraftрегистрировать воздушное судноregular-body aircraftвоздушное судно с фюзеляжем типовой схемыrelease the aircraftпрекращать контроль воздушного суднаremoval of aircraftудаление воздушного суднаremove the aircraftудалять воздушное судноrescue aircraftпоисково-спасательное воздушное судноresearch aircraftисследовательское воздушное судноrestore an aircraftвосстанавливать воздушное судноretirement of aircraftсписание воздушного суднаreturn an aircraft to flyable statusприводить воздушное судно в состояние летной годностиreturn the aircraft to serviceдопускать воздушное судно к дальнейшей эксплуатацииroll in the aircraftвводить воздушное судно в кренroll on the aircraftвыполнять этап пробега воздушного суднаroll out the aircraftвыводить воздушное судно из кренаrotary-wing aircraftвоздушное судно с несущим винтомrotate the aircraftотрывать переднюю опору шасси воздушного суднаsafe handling of an aircraftбезопасное управление воздушным судномschool aircraftучебное воздушное судноsea aircraftгидровариант воздушного суднаsearch and rescue aircraftпоисково-спасательное воздушное судноseparate the aircraftэшелонировать воздушное судноshort-range aircraftвоздушное судно для местный авиалинийshort takeoff and landing aircraftвоздушное судно короткого взлета и посадкиsingle-engined aircraftвоздушное судно с одним двигателемsingle-pilot aircraftвоздушное судно с одним пилотомsingle-seater aircraftодноместное воздушное судноspace the aircraftопределять зону полета воздушного суднаsports aircraftспортивное воздушное судноstandby aircraftрезервное воздушное судноstate aircraftвоздушное судно государственной принадлежностиstate of aircraft manufactureгосударство - изготовитель воздушного суднаstayed afloat aircraftвоздушное судно, оставшееся на плавуsteer the aircraftуправлять воздушным судномstretched aircraftвоздушное судно с удлиненным фюзеляжемsubsonic aircraftдозвуковое воздушное судноsubstantially dameged aircraftсущественно поврежденное воздушное судноsubstitute the aircraftзаменять воздушное судноsupersonic aircraftсверхзвуковое воздушное судноsuspected aircraft damageпредполагаемое повреждение воздушного суднаtailless aircraftвоздушное судно схемы летающее крылоtaxiing aircraftрулящее воздушное судноterminating aircraftвоздушное судно, прибывающее в конечный аэропортtest aircraftиспытываемое воздушное судноthe aircraft under commandуправляемое воздушное судноtoday's aircraftвоздушное судно, отвечающее современным требованиямtopped-up aircraftснаряженное воздушное судноtraining aircraftучебно-тренировочное воздушное судноtransonic aircraftоколозвуковое воздушное судноtransport aircraftтранспортное воздушное судноtrim the aircraftбалансировать воздушное судноturbine-engined aircraftвоздушное судно с газотурбинными двигателямиturbojet aircraftвоздушное судно с турбореактивными двигателямиturboprop aircraftвоздушное судно с турбовинтовыми двигателямиtwin-engined aircraftвоздушное судно с двумя двигателямиtwin-fuselage aircraftдвухфюзеляжное воздушное судноunder command aircraftуправляемое воздушное судноunder way aircraftвоздушное судно, готовое к полетуunladen aircraftразгруженное воздушное судноunlawfully seized aircraftнезаконно захваченное воздушное судноunpressurized aircraftнегерметизированное воздушное судноunstall the aircraftвыводить воздушное судно из сваливания на крылоunstick the aircraftотрывать воздушное судно от землиvend an aircraftпоставлять воздушное судноvertical takeoff and landing aircraftвоздушное судно вертикального взлета и посадкиwarn the aircraftпредупреждать воздушное судноwide-body aircraftширокофюзеляжное воздушное судноwork on the aircraftвыполнять работу на воздушном судне -
14 committee
nкомитет, комиссияto appear before a committee — присутствовать / выступать на заседании комитета
to assign a task to a committee — передавать вопрос в комитет; поручать решение вопроса комитету
to chair a committee — быть председателем комитета; возглавлять комитет
to define the competence of the committee — определять / устанавливать круг полномочий комитета
to entrust a committee with a task — передавать вопрос в комитет, поручать решение вопроса комитету
to establish a committee — образовывать / создавать / учреждать комитет
to exclude smb from a committee — выводить кого-л. из состава комитета
to form a committee — образовывать / создавать / учреждать комитет
to go before a committee — присутствовать / выступать на заседании комитета
to introduce smb into a committee — включать / вводить кого-л. в состав комитета
to refer / to remit smth to a committee — передавать что-л. на рассмотрение комитета
to set up a committee — образовывать / создавать / учреждать комитет
- administrative committeeto specify the terms of reference of the committee — определять / устанавливать круг полномочий комитета
- advisory committee
- Aeronautical and Space Science Committee
- Agriculture and Forestry Committee
- Appropriations Committee
- arbitration committee
- Armed Service Committee
- auditing committee
- back-bench committee
- Banking and Currency Committee
- budget committee
- cabinet committee
- cabinet-level committee
- censorship committee
- citizens' committee
- city committee
- Committee for Economic Development
- committee for national redemption
- committee is holding a sitting
- committee is in session
- committee is sitting
- committee of action
- committee of experts
- committee of five
- committee of inquiry
- Committee of Permanent Representatives of Member States of the EU
- Committee of the Whole House
- Committee on Committees
- committee on juridical questions
- committee on legal questions
- Committee on Rules
- conference committee
- Congressional campaign committee
- Congressional committee
- consultative committee
- coordination committee
- COPEREP
- county committee
- credentials committee
- cross-party committee
- DAC
- Defense Ministers' Committee
- Democratic National Committee
- Development Assistance Committee
- District of Columbia Committee
- drafting committee
- Education and Labor Committee
- election committee
- emergency committee
- enlarged committee
- Ethics Committee
- executive committee
- exhibition committee
- Expenditures in the Executive Departments Committee
- Finance Committee
- Foreign Affairs Committee of the House of Representatives
- Foreign Ministers' Committee
- four-strong committee
- general committee
- Good Offices Committee
- government committee
- Government Operations Committee
- high level committee
- hospitality committee
- House Administration Committee
- House Intelligence Committee
- Human Rights Committee
- ICRC
- inter-agency committee
- interim committee
- Interior and Insular Affairs Committee
- Internal Security Committee
- International Committee of the Red Cross
- International Olympic Committee
- Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee
- joint committee
- joint Congressional committee
- judicial screening committee
- Labor and Public Welfare Committee
- law-and-order committee
- legal committee
- main committees
- management committee
- Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee
- Military Staff Committee
- mixed committee
- National Olympic Committee
- National Salvation Committee
- negotiating committee
- Nobel Prize Committee
- nominations committee
- organizing committee
- parliamentary committee
- party committee
- patronage committee
- permanent committee
- policy-making committee
- political action committee
- political committee
- Post Office and Civil Service Committee
- press committee
- procedural committees
- Public Lands Committee
- Public Works Committee
- reception committee
- recess committee
- report of the committee
- Republic Election committee
- Rules and Administration Committee
- Science and Astronautics Committee
- select committee
- selection committee
- Senate Appropriations Committee
- Senate Armed Services Committee
- Senate Intelligence Committee
- senatorial committee
- sessional committee
- sifting committee
- smelling committee
- special committee
- Standards of Official Conduct Committee
- standing committee
- steering committee
- strike committee
- style committee
- subsidiary committee
- trade-union committee
- UN Sanctions Committee
- Un-American Activities Committee
- Veterans Affairs Committee
- Ways and Means Committee
- welfare committee
- working committee -
15 governance
•• government, governance
•• Government 1. the political direction or control exercised over a nation, state, community, etc. 2. the form or system by which a nation, state, community, etc. is governed. 3. a governing body or persons. 4. control or rule (The Random House Dictionary).
•• Governance governing, control (Oxford American Dictionary).
•• О важном отличии употребления слова government в британском и американском вариантах английского языка рассказано в статье American English/British English. Поскольку в британском употреблении это слово, как и у нас, означает обычно правительство, кабинет министров, здесь мы будем говорить в основном об особенностях американской трактовки этого слова. Она связана прежде всего с тем, что для американцев government – это система правления, государственной власти и все, что с ней связано. Согласно доктрине разделения властей (separation of powers) государственная власть делится на законодательную, исполнительную и судебную (суды для американцев тоже government), которые взаимно сдерживают друг друга (система checks and balances – сдержек и противовесов). Далее, государственное управление имеет несколько уровней – федеральный, штатный, муниципальный (местный). Для американцев это тоже government. А вот сказать the Clinton government (или the Nixon government) нельзя. Это лишь часть того, что американцы называют the government (в этом смысле всегда с определенным артиклем), а тех, кто «приходит и уходит» с каждым президентом (кабинет министров – кстати, министры в США, как и в Великобритании, Secretaries - и других политических назначенцев), американцы называют the Administration.
•• При минимальном внимании переводчик без особого труда сделает правильный выбор. Вот несколько примеров:
•• 1. I had had many years of experience in government (George Kennan). [Rachel Carson] went to work for the government, editing and writing pamphlets for the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Interior Department (Washington Post). В обоих случаях government – государственная служба. Обратим внимание на Interior Department. Это, конечно, не министерство внутренних дел в нашем понимании, а скорее министерство природных (если угодно, внутренних) ресурсов;
•• 2. Americans jealously, even obsessively guard their rights and are suspicious of government authority. – Американцы ревностно, болезненно-непримиримо оберегают свои права и с подозрением относятся к власти;
•• 3. Kremlin funding for social services is sparse, and much of the burden falls on cash-poor and often corrupt local governments (Washington Post). Здесь governments – местные органы власти.
•• Действительно, американцы не слишком тепло относятся к government. В глазах большинства из них государство – это не только никем не любимые налоги, но и вообще нечто казенное. Соответственно выражение government issue (так говорят о форменной одежде и т.п.) – это казенное имущество. Кстати, сокращение GI, вошедшее в язык во время Второй мировой войны, – отсюда. Так до сих пор называют американских солдат.
•• В последнее время среди политиков, журналистов и социологов приобрело популярность слово governance, которое уже невозможно отнести, как это делают наши словари, к чисто книжной лексике. Вот заголовок статьи обозревателя «Нью-Йорк таймс» Томаса Фридмана – The Big Issue Now Is Competent Governance. Речь в ней идет об управлении жизнью общества. Чтобы было яснее, приведу довольно пространную цитату: With the collapse of communism, virtually every country has the same “hardware.” That is, they have all adopted free market capitalism to one degree or another. But where they differ is the “software” – the institutions of governance, be they regulatory bodies, a watchdog press, or uncorrupted courts, civil service, parliaments and police. Встречается также выражение corporate governance – структуры и методы управления корпорациями.
•• * В последнее время часто употребляется словосочетание good governance. Требование обеспечить good governance выдвигается международными «донорами» в качестве условия предоставления помощи развивающимся странам. Необходимость good governance признана в документах ООН, например в Плане действий, принятом в Иоханнесбурге:
•• Good governance within each country and at the international level is essential for sustainable development. At the domestic level, sound environmental, social and economic policies, democratic institutions responsive to the needs of the people, the rule of law, anti-corruption measures, gender equality and an enabling environment for investment are the basis for sustainable development.
•• Второе предложение можно считать своего рода рабочим определением этого понятия. К сожалению, русская служба письменных переводов ООН приняла в качестве перевода неудачный, на мой взгляд, вариант благое управление. Отчасти оправдывает ооновских переводчиков необходимость иметь во всех официальных текстах ООН одно и только одно соответствие английскому термину. Существует мнение, что это выражение пришло в английский язык из китайского, а именно из учения Конфуция о «хорошем управлении государством».
•• И хотя некоторые коллеги считают, что с вариантом благое управление придется смириться, мне кажется, что еще можно побороться. По смыслу (особенно когда речь идет о требовании good governance) это то, что мы назвали бы наведением порядка во власти/управлении/государстве. В зависимости от контекста можно использовать варианты порядок во власти/управлении/государстве и даже оздоровление власти. И все же в большинстве случаев по чисто прагматическим причинам придется выбрать вариант, включающий в себя слово управление (нередко, но не всегда – государственное управление). Здесь возможны варианты надлежащее/адекватное/правильное управление (в последнем варианте – тавтология, но он, по-моему, вполне отражает смысл).
•• Интересно выражение global governance. Глобальное управление слишком похоже на «мировое правительство», от стремления создать которое все открещиваются. Неплохие варианты – управление глобальными процессами или глобальная управляемость. Corporate governance – корпоративное управление, хотя мне встречалось также внутрикорпоративное управление и даже принципы корпоративного поведения. Может быть, последнее, как утверждают сторонники этого варианта, и лучше отражает суть понятия, но надо помнить, что условен и английский термин и, как следствие, его перевод. Поэтому во избежание путаницы стоит, наверное, остановиться на первом варианте.
-
16 government
•• government, governance
•• Government 1. the political direction or control exercised over a nation, state, community, etc. 2. the form or system by which a nation, state, community, etc. is governed. 3. a governing body or persons. 4. control or rule (The Random House Dictionary).
•• Governance governing, control (Oxford American Dictionary).
•• О важном отличии употребления слова government в британском и американском вариантах английского языка рассказано в статье American English/British English. Поскольку в британском употреблении это слово, как и у нас, означает обычно правительство, кабинет министров, здесь мы будем говорить в основном об особенностях американской трактовки этого слова. Она связана прежде всего с тем, что для американцев government – это система правления, государственной власти и все, что с ней связано. Согласно доктрине разделения властей (separation of powers) государственная власть делится на законодательную, исполнительную и судебную (суды для американцев тоже government), которые взаимно сдерживают друг друга (система checks and balances – сдержек и противовесов). Далее, государственное управление имеет несколько уровней – федеральный, штатный, муниципальный (местный). Для американцев это тоже government. А вот сказать the Clinton government (или the Nixon government) нельзя. Это лишь часть того, что американцы называют the government (в этом смысле всегда с определенным артиклем), а тех, кто «приходит и уходит» с каждым президентом (кабинет министров – кстати, министры в США, как и в Великобритании, Secretaries - и других политических назначенцев), американцы называют the Administration.
•• При минимальном внимании переводчик без особого труда сделает правильный выбор. Вот несколько примеров:
•• 1. I had had many years of experience in government (George Kennan). [Rachel Carson] went to work for the government, editing and writing pamphlets for the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Interior Department (Washington Post). В обоих случаях government – государственная служба. Обратим внимание на Interior Department. Это, конечно, не министерство внутренних дел в нашем понимании, а скорее министерство природных (если угодно, внутренних) ресурсов;
•• 2. Americans jealously, even obsessively guard their rights and are suspicious of government authority. – Американцы ревностно, болезненно-непримиримо оберегают свои права и с подозрением относятся к власти;
•• 3. Kremlin funding for social services is sparse, and much of the burden falls on cash-poor and often corrupt local governments (Washington Post). Здесь governments – местные органы власти.
•• Действительно, американцы не слишком тепло относятся к government. В глазах большинства из них государство – это не только никем не любимые налоги, но и вообще нечто казенное. Соответственно выражение government issue (так говорят о форменной одежде и т.п.) – это казенное имущество. Кстати, сокращение GI, вошедшее в язык во время Второй мировой войны, – отсюда. Так до сих пор называют американских солдат.
•• В последнее время среди политиков, журналистов и социологов приобрело популярность слово governance, которое уже невозможно отнести, как это делают наши словари, к чисто книжной лексике. Вот заголовок статьи обозревателя «Нью-Йорк таймс» Томаса Фридмана – The Big Issue Now Is Competent Governance. Речь в ней идет об управлении жизнью общества. Чтобы было яснее, приведу довольно пространную цитату: With the collapse of communism, virtually every country has the same “hardware.” That is, they have all adopted free market capitalism to one degree or another. But where they differ is the “software” – the institutions of governance, be they regulatory bodies, a watchdog press, or uncorrupted courts, civil service, parliaments and police. Встречается также выражение corporate governance – структуры и методы управления корпорациями.
•• * В последнее время часто употребляется словосочетание good governance. Требование обеспечить good governance выдвигается международными «донорами» в качестве условия предоставления помощи развивающимся странам. Необходимость good governance признана в документах ООН, например в Плане действий, принятом в Иоханнесбурге:
•• Good governance within each country and at the international level is essential for sustainable development. At the domestic level, sound environmental, social and economic policies, democratic institutions responsive to the needs of the people, the rule of law, anti-corruption measures, gender equality and an enabling environment for investment are the basis for sustainable development.
•• Второе предложение можно считать своего рода рабочим определением этого понятия. К сожалению, русская служба письменных переводов ООН приняла в качестве перевода неудачный, на мой взгляд, вариант благое управление. Отчасти оправдывает ооновских переводчиков необходимость иметь во всех официальных текстах ООН одно и только одно соответствие английскому термину. Существует мнение, что это выражение пришло в английский язык из китайского, а именно из учения Конфуция о «хорошем управлении государством».
•• И хотя некоторые коллеги считают, что с вариантом благое управление придется смириться, мне кажется, что еще можно побороться. По смыслу (особенно когда речь идет о требовании good governance) это то, что мы назвали бы наведением порядка во власти/управлении/государстве. В зависимости от контекста можно использовать варианты порядок во власти/управлении/государстве и даже оздоровление власти. И все же в большинстве случаев по чисто прагматическим причинам придется выбрать вариант, включающий в себя слово управление (нередко, но не всегда – государственное управление). Здесь возможны варианты надлежащее/адекватное/правильное управление (в последнем варианте – тавтология, но он, по-моему, вполне отражает смысл).
•• Интересно выражение global governance. Глобальное управление слишком похоже на «мировое правительство», от стремления создать которое все открещиваются. Неплохие варианты – управление глобальными процессами или глобальная управляемость. Corporate governance – корпоративное управление, хотя мне встречалось также внутрикорпоративное управление и даже принципы корпоративного поведения. Может быть, последнее, как утверждают сторонники этого варианта, и лучше отражает суть понятия, но надо помнить, что условен и английский термин и, как следствие, его перевод. Поэтому во избежание путаницы стоит, наверное, остановиться на первом варианте.
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17 test
испытание, проба, исследование, см. тж. testing, trials; испытывать, пробовать; исследоватьacceptable environmental range test — испытание для определения диапазона допустимых изменений условий окружающей среды
jolt and jumble test — разг. испытание на удар и вибрацию
partial climb flight tests — лётные испытания «на зубцы»
single engine stall tests — испытания на срыв [сваливание] с одним работающим двигателем
supercharged CFR engine test — оценка детонационной стойкости (авиационных бензинов) на одноцилиндровой установке CFR
water(-flow, -impingement) test — холодная проливка (ракетного двигателя)
— air test— bed test— hot test— jet test -
18 group
army group, Royal Artillery — Бр. армейская группа ПА
army group, Royal Engineers — Бр. армейская инженерная группа
C3 Countermeasures Working group — рабочая группа по вопросам РЭП систем оперативного управления и связи
combat equipment group, Europe — группа обеспечения войск оружием и военной техникой в Европейской зоне (для сил двойного базирования)
European Interdepartment group, NSC — Европейская межведомственная группа СНБ
intelligence data (technical) processing group — группа (технической) обработки разведывательных данных
Standing group, Military Committee — постоянная группа военного комитета НАТО
tactical air (control) group — мор. группа наведения авиации
— address indicating group— FA group— HQ group— launching control group* * *• 1) группа; 2) дивизия• 1) группироваться; 2) группировать -
19 engine
двигатель; мотор; машинаbuzz up an engine — жарг. запускать двигатель
clean the engine — прогазовывать [прочищать] двигатель (кратковременной даней газа)
engine of bypass ratio 10: 1 — двигатель с коэффициентом [степенью] двухконтурности 10:1
flight discarded jet engine — реактивный двигатель, отработавший лётный ресурс
kick the engine over — разг. запускать двигатель
lunar module ascent engine — подъёмный двигатель лунного модуля [отсека]
monofuel rocket engine — ЖРД на однокомпонентном [унитарном] топливе
open the engine up — давать газ, увеличивать тягу или мощность двигателя
prepackaged liquid propellant engine — ЖРД на топливе длительного хранения; заранее снаряжаемый ЖРД
production(-standard, -type) engine — серийный двигатель, двигатель серийного образца [типа]
return and landing engine — ксм. двигатель для возвращения и посадки
reversed rocket engine — тормозной ракетный двигатель; ксм. тормозная двигательная установка
run up the engine — опробовать [«гонять»] двигатель
secure the engine — выключать [останавливать, глушить] двигатель
shut down the engine — выключать [останавливать, глушить] двигатель
shut off the engine — выключать [останавливать, глушить] двигатель
solid(-fuel, -grain) rocket engine — ракетный двигатель твёрдого топлива
turn the engine over — проворачивать [прокручивать] двигатель [вал двигателя]
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20 Brennan, Louis
[br]b. 28 January 1852 Castlebar, Irelandd. 17 January 1932 Montreux, Switzerland[br]Irish inventor of the Brennan dirigible torpedo, and of a gyroscopically balanced monorail system.[br]The Brennan family, including Louis, emigrated to Australia in 1861. He was an inventive genius from childhood, and while at Melbourne invented his torpedo. Within it were two drums, each with several miles of steel wire coiled upon it and mounted on one of two concentric propeller shafts. The propellers revolved in opposite directions. Wires were led out of the torpedo to winding drums on land, driven by high-speed steam engines: the faster the drums on shore were driven, the quicker the wires were withdrawn from the drums within the torpedo and the quicker the propellers turned. A steering device was operated by altering the speeds of the wires relative to one another. As finally developed, Brennan torpedoes were accurate over a range of 1 1/2 miles (2.4 km), in contrast to contemporary self-propelled torpedoes, which were unreliable at ranges over 400 yards (366 in).Brennan moved to England in 1880 and sold the rights to his torpedo to the British Government for a total of £110,000, probably the highest payment ever made by it to an individual inventor. Brennan torpedoes became part of the defences of many vital naval ports, but never saw active service: improvement of other means of defence meant they were withdrawn in 1906. By then Brennan was deeply involved in the development of his monorail. The need for a simple and cheap form of railway had been apparent to him when in Australia and he considered it could be met by a ground-level monorail upon which vehicles would be balanced by gyroscopes. After overcoming many manufacturing difficulties, he demonstrated first a one-eighth scale version and then a full-size, electrically driven vehicle, which ran on its single rail throughout the summer of 1910 in London, carrying up to fifty passengers at a time. Development had been supported financially by, successively, the War Office, the India Office and the Government of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, which had no rail access; despite all this, however, no further financial support, government or commercial, was forthcoming.Brennan made many other inventions, worked on the early development of helicopters and in 1929 built a gyroscopically balanced, two-wheeled motor car which, however, never went into production.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCompanion of the Bath 1892.Bibliography1878, British patent no. 3359 (torpedo) 1903, British patent no. 27212 (stability mechanisms).Further ReadingR.E.Wilkes, 1973, Louis Brennan CB, 2 parts, Gillingham (Kent) Public Library. J.R.Day and B.C.Wilson, 1957, Unusual Railways, London: F.Muller.See also: Behr, Fritz Bernhard; Lartigue, Charles François Marie-Thérèse; Palmer, Henry Robinson( monorails); Whitehead, Robert( torpedoes).PJGR
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